Characteristics of included studies [ordered by study ID]
Alam 1989
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Number: 623 children
Inclusion criteria: aged 6 to 23 months |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved water supply + hygiene education (3 subunits)
2. Primary drinking supply (2 subunits) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea among children aged 6 to 23 months by water source, hygiene practices, and household socioeconomic characteristics |
|
| | Notes | Location: 5 political subunits in a village in rural Bangladesh
Length: 3 years
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Austin 1993-i
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Number: 287 children
Inclusion criteria: aged 25 to 60 months (group B) from villages primarily using open, shallow wells for drinking water |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Sodium hypochlorite solution used at household level (11 villages)
2. Primary drinking supply (11 villages) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea
2. Change in nutritional status using weight-for-height Z-score |
|
| | Notes | Location: 22 rural villages in The Gambia
Length: 20 weeks
Publication status: PhD dissertation |
|
|
Austin 1993-ii
|
| Methods | As above |
|
| | Participants | Number: 144 children between 6 and 24 months |
|
| | Interventions | As above |
|
| | Outcomes | As above |
|
| | Notes | As above |
|
|
Aziz 1990
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Number: about 9600 people of all ages from 1570 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved water supply + sanitation + hygiene education
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea:
portion of among children < 5 years
portion of episodes classified as persistent
percentage of days with diarrhoea
odds ratios of frequent diarrhoea
related to environmental factors
|
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 villages in rural Bangladesh
Length: 3 years
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Chiller 2004
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Number: 3401 persons
Inclusion criteria: all ages from 514 households with at least one child under 1 year |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Flocculant-disinfectant sachets used at household level + hygiene education
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea (portion of total days of diarrhoea out of total days of observation) among all ages
2. Incidence of persistent diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: 42 neighbourhood clusters in 12 rural villages in Guatemala
Length: 13 weeks
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Clasen 2004b
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 324 persons of all ages from 60 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household gravity water filter system using imported ceramic filter elements
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Period prevalence of diarrhoea (7-day recall) among all ages
2. Microbial water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Bolivian community
Length: 5 months
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Clasen 2004c
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Number: 50 households with 280 persons, of which 32 (11%) were under age 5 |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household gravity water filter system using imported ceramic filter elements
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Period prevalence of diarrhoea (7-day recall) among householders assessed at approximately 6-week intervals |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Bolivia
Length: 6 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Colford 2002
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 236 children 12 years or older from 77 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household reverse osmosis filters
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of watery diarrhoea
2. Gastrointestinal illness and various other symptoms
3. Water consumption
4. Effectiveness of blinding |
|
| | Notes | Location: urban community in California, USA
Length: 4 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Conroy 1996
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 206 Maasai children aged 5 to 16 years in 3 adjoining areas of single province |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Solar disinfection in plastic bottles at household level
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Period prevalence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: single province of rural Kenya
Length: 12 weeks
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Conroy 1999
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 349 Maasai children < 6 years in 140 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Solar disinfection in plastic bottles at household level
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Period prevalence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Kenya
Length: 1 year
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Crump 2004-i
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 6650 persons of all ages in 604 family compounds; participation limited to family compounds with at least 1 child < 2 years and likely to be using highly turbid source water |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Sodium hypochlorite used at household level + hygiene education
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence (weeks with diarrhoea/weeks of observation) among all ages
2. Breastfeeding and consumption of food and water for children < 2 years
3. Deaths
4. Use of intervention
5. Mothers' knowledge of and acceptance of intervention (weeks 5 and 15)
6. Microbial water quality and turbidity
7. Mothers' knowledge of and attitudes to intervention |
|
| | Notes | Location: 49 rural villages in western Kenya
Length: 20 weeks
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Crump 2004-ii
|
| Methods | See Crump 2004-i |
|
| | Participants | As above |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Flocculant-disinfectant sachets used at household level + hygiene
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | As above |
|
| | Notes | As above |
|
|
Doocy 2004
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 2191 persons of all ages (1138 intervention, 1053 controls), of which 735 are children < 5 (395 intervention, 340 controls) from households in settlement area not using treated water for drinking |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Flocculant-disinfectant sachets used at household level, plus water storage vessel
2. Primary drinking supply; also received vessel |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence (days with diarrhoea/total days of observation)
2. Prevalence of bloody diarrhoea
3. Utilization and acceptability data from exit survey |
|
| | Notes | Location: Liberian camp for displaced persons
Length: 12 weeks
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
du Preez 2004
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 115 children < 5 years |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household commercial ceramic filter using imported components (60 children)
2. Primary drinking supply (55 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Incidence of bloody diarrhoea and non-bloody diarrhoea
3. Microbiological water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural South Africa and Zimbabwe
Length: 6 months
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Garrett 2004
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 960 children < 5 years |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household chlorination using sodium hypochlorite solution + improved water supply + sanitation + hygiene education + improved storage (618 children)
2. Primary drinking supply (342 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Kenya
Length: not reported
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Gasana 2002
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 150 children < 5 years (in intervention group, controls) |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved source: pipes to stand post; sedimentation tank; ceramic filter; storage tank; and communal tap (95 children)
2. Primary drinking supply (55 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Rwanda
Length: 1 year
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Handzel 1998
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 447 children aged 3 to 60 months from 276 households using municipal water (household taps) as primary source of drinking water which had tested positive at baseline for Escherichia coli |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household chlorination using sodium hypochlorite solution, special storage vessel and hygiene instruction about why and how to treat water (140 households)
2. Primary drinking supply (136 households) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Microbial water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: informal settlement in urban Bangladesh
Length: 8 months
Publication status: PhD dissertation |
|
|
Jensen 2003
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 226 children < 5 years |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Village level chlorination of water supply using calcium hypochlorite (82 children)
2. Primary drinking supply (144 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Microbial water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 villages in Pakistan
Length: 6 months
Publication status: journal
Controlled for sanitation and water storage status of households, and for seasonality |
|
|
Kirchhoff 1985
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 112 persons (all ages) from 20 families with at least 2 children living at home and using water from pond exclusively |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination with sodium hypochlorite
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea
2. Microbial water quality
3. Acceptability of intervention to study population |
|
| | Notes | Location: rural Brazil
Length: 18 weeks
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Luby 2004a-i
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 2365 persons < 15 years from 285 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Bleach + regular vessel (640 people)
2. Primary drinking supply (1027 people) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea
2. Use of intervention by certain household characteristics |
|
| | Notes | Location: 3 neighbourhoods in squatter settlements in Karachi, Pakistan
Length: 6 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Luby 2004b-i
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 5520 persons of all ages |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Dilute bleach + vessel (1747 people)
2. Primary drinking supply (1852 people) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence and longitudinal prevalence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: 47 squatter settlements of Karachi, Pakistan
Length: 8 months
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Lule 2005
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 2201 persons of all ages among 458 households without access to chlorinated municipal water; at least 1 resident of each household was HIV+ |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination using sodium hypochlorite + special vessel (1097 people)
2. Primary drinking supply (1104 people)
Note: hygiene education was provided to both groups |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Days with diarrhoea (longitudinal prevalence)
3. Days lost from work or school
4. Aetiology of diarrhoea
5. Frequency of clinic visits and hospitalization
6. Mortality |
|
| | Notes | Location: households in rural Uganda
Length: 5 months
Publication status: unpublished
Succeeded by 18-month Randomized controlled trial that included cotrimoxazole prophylaxis |
|
|
Mahfouz 1995
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 311 children < 5 years (among intervention households, among controls) among 171 families |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination using calcium hypochlorite (159 children)
2. Primary drinking supply (152 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Reported cases of diarrhoea in intervention year compared with previous year |
|
| | Notes | Location: 9 villages in rural Saudi Arabia
Length: 6 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Messou 1997
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | Approximately 985 to 1260 (depending on study year) children < 5 years |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved water supply + sanitation + hygiene education + oral rehydration therapy for those suffering from diarrhoea (2 villages)
2. Primary drinking supply (2 villages) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Reduction in deaths attributable to diarrhoea
3. Utilization of oral rehydration solution |
|
| | Notes | Location: 4 villages in rural Ivory Coast
Length: 5 years
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Quick 1999
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 791 persons of all ages from 127 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination + vessel + hygiene education (400 people, 64 households)
2. Primary drinking supply (391 people, 63 households) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Mean episodes of diarrhoea per person
2. Microbiological water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 peri-urban communities in Bolivia
Length: 5 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Quick 2002
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 1584 persons of all ages from 260 households |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination + vessel + hygiene education (166 households)
2. Primary drinking supply (94 households) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Microbiological water quality |
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 peri-urban communities in Zambia
Length: 3 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Reller 2003-i
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 492 households each with a child < 12 months or mother in last trimester of pregnancy |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Flocculant-disinfectant (102 households)
2. Primary drinking supply (96 households) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Intervention knowledge and acceptability
3. Microbiological water quality
4. Intervention utilization |
|
| | Notes | Location: 12 villages in rural Guatemala
Length: 12 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Roberts 2001
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 1160 persons of all ages; of these, 208 were children < 5 years |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved storage: bucket with spout and narrow opening to limit hand entry (310 people including 51 children, 100 households)
2. Primary drinking supply (850 people including 157 children, 300 households) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Microbiological water quality
3. Incidence of diarrhoea by selected environmental factors |
|
| | Notes | Location: Malawi refugee camp
Length: 4 months
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Semenza 1998
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 1583 persons of all ages from 240 households, half with access to piped water (first control group) and half without (of which 62 received intervention, and 58 served as a second control group); these included 344 children < 5 (176 from piped water households, 88 intervention and 80 no-chlorination) |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Household level chlorination + vessel + hygiene education
2. Primary drinking supply |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Incidence of diarrhoea by selected household and water management practices |
|
| | Notes | Location: urban Uzbekistan
Length: 9.5 weeks
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Torun 1982
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 2103 persons of all ages from 2 villages |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Source protection (spring), chlorination facilities, "adequate storage", and water mains with faucets to yards of intervention village (1006 people)
2. Primary drinking supply (1097 people) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 small villages in Guatemala
Length: 12 months
Publication status: book |
|
|
URL 1995-i
|
| Methods | Randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 1120 children < 5 years (265 and 289 allocated to the water quality intervention arms, 297 to an education only arm, and 269 to the control arm) from 680 families from three demographic regions |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Locally fabricated ceramic filters (265 children or 23.6%)
2. Primary drinking supply (269 children) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea
2. Nutritional status (weight/age) |
|
| | Notes | Location: 3 demographic regions of Guatemala
Length: 12 months
Publication status: unpublished |
|
|
Xiao 1997
|
| Methods | Quasi-randomized controlled trial |
|
| | Participants | 4649 persons of all ages |
|
| | Interventions | 1. Improved water supply + sanitation + hygiene education (2363 people)
2. Primary drinking supply (2286 people) |
|
| | Outcomes | 1. Incidence of diarrhoea |
|
| | Notes | Location: 2 villages in rural China
Length: 3 years
Publication status: journal |
|
|
Characteristics of excluded studies [ordered by study ID]
|
| Study | Reason for exclusion |
|---|
| | Asaolu 2002 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Azurin 1974 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Bahl 1976 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Bersh 1985 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Chongsuvivatwong 94 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Colwell 2003 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Conroy 2001 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Deb 1986 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Esrey 1991b | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Fewtrell 1994 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Fewtrell 1997 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Ghannoum 1981 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Hellard 2001 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Hoque 1996 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Iijima 2001 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Jensen 2002 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Khan 1984 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Macy 1998 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; intervention not an improvement in water quality; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Maeusezahl 2003 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | McCabe 1957 | Intervention not an improvement in water quality |
| | Mertens 1990 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; intervention not an improvement in water quality; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Nanan 2003 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Payment 1991a | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT
Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Payment 1991b | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Pinfold 1990 | Intervention not an improvement in water quality; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Rubenstein 1969 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Sathe 1996 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Shiffman 1978 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Shum 1971 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; intervention not an improvement in water quality; outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Sorvillo 1994 | Outcome measures not include diarrhoea |
| | Tonglet 1992 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | Trivedi 1971 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
| | VanDerslice 1995 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT; intervention not an improvement in water quality |
| | Varghese 2002 | Study not RCT or quasi-RCT |
|
|
RCT: randomized controlled trial
Characteristics of studies awaiting assessment [ordered by study ID]
Clasen 2005
|
| Methods | — |
| | Participants | |
| | Interventions | |
| | Outcomes | — |
| | Notes | — |
|
|
Colford 2005a
|
| Methods | — |
| | Participants | — |
| | Interventions | — |
| | Outcomes | — |
| | Notes | — |
|
|
Colford 2005b
|
| Methods | — |
| | Participants | — |
| | Interventions | — |
| | Outcomes | — |
| | Notes | — |
|
|
Rose 2006
|
| Methods | — |
| | Participants | — |
| | Interventions | — |
| | Outcomes | — |
| | Notes | — |
|
|
Comparison 1. Water quality intervention versus control: point and type of intervention (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 10 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 10 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.73 [0.63, 0.85] |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.87 [0.74, 1.02] |
| | | 6 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.42, 0.74] |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.61 [0.46, 0.81] |
| | | 2 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.37 [0.15, 0.92] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: children < 5 years | 6 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 6 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.78 [0.65, 0.94] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.93 [0.82, 1.05] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.42 [0.19, 0.95] |
| | | 2 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.53 [0.23, 1.23] |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.21 [0.07, 0.61] |
|
|
Comparison 2. Water quality intervention versus control: point of intervention (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 7 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 7 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.45 [0.33, 0.62] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.45 [0.43, 0.47] |
| | | 6 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.43 [0.27, 0.70] |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.34 [0.17, 0.68] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.41 [0.21, 0.79] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.61, 1.03] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: children < 5 years | 5 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 5 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.43, 0.69] |
| | | 5 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.43, 0.69] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.48 [0.33, 0.68] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.41 [0.21, 0.79] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.47, 1.01] |
|
|
Comparison 3. Water quality intervention versus control: point and type of intervention (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 11 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 11 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.27, 1.16] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.37, 0.84] |
| | | 10 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.25, 1.23] |
| | | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.82 [0.60, 1.11] |
| | | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.40 [0.14, 1.16] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: children < 5 years | 12 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 11 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.61 [0.29, 1.26] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.63 [0.49, 0.81] |
| | | 10 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.60 [0.27, 1.36] |
| | | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.91 [0.82, 1.02] |
| | | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.42 [0.13, 1.37] |
|
|
Comparison 4. Water quality intervention versus control: point and type of intervention (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.68 [0.59, 0.79] |
| | | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.68 [0.59, 0.79] |
| | | 3 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.77 [0.58, 1.02] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.35 [0.23, 0.53] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.63, 0.74] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.77 [0.65, 0.90] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: children < 5 years | 6 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 6 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.70 [0.50, 0.99] |
| | | 6 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.70 [0.50, 0.99] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.90 [0.65, 1.25] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.32 [0.11, 0.90] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.86 [0.57, 1.29] |
|
|
Comparison 5. Water quality intervention versus control: point and type of intervention (means ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Totals not selected |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: children < 5 years | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Totals not selected |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
| | | 1 | | Means ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Not estimable |
|
|
Comparison 6. Water quantity intervention versus control: by compliance with intervention (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.44 [0.28, 0.69] |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.28 [0.14, 0.57] |
|
|
Comparison 7. Water quality intervention versus control: by compliance with intervention (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 7 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.80 [0.71, 0.89] |
| | | 3 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.40 [0.28, 0.57] |
|
|
Comparison 8. Water quality intervention versus control: by ambient water quality (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.28, 1.06] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.65, 0.95] |
|
|
Comparison 9. Water quality intervention versus control: by ambient water quality (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.36 [0.07, 1.81] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.41 [0.21, 0.79] |
|
|
Comparison 10. Water quality intervention versus control: by ambient water quality (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 2 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.80 [0.69, 0.93] |
| | | 3 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.07 [0.88, 1.29] |
|
|
Comparison 11. Water quality intervention versus control: by ambient water quality (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 22 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.28, 1.06] |
| | | 14 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.70 [0.60, 0.80] |
| | | 7 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.49, 0.96] |
|
|
Comparison 12. Water quality intervention versus control: by sufficiency of water quantity (long. prev. ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.62 [0.47, 0.82] |
| | | 4 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.53 [0.15, 1.96] |
|
|
Comparison 13. Water quality intervention versus control: by water supply level (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 9 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.75 [0.56, 1.00] |
| | | 6 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.75 [0.63, 0.89] |
|
|
Comparison 14. Water quality intervention versus control: by water supply level (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 6 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.60 [0.36, 0.99] |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.36 [0.20, 0.64] |
|
|
Comparison 15. Water quality intervention versus control: by water supply level (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 11 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.39 [0.28, 0.55] |
| | | 7 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.62 [0.23, 1.67] |
|
|
Comparison 16. Water quality intervention versus control: by water supply level (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.47 [0.24, 0.92] |
| | | 8 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.59, 0.80] |
|
|
Comparison 17. Water quality intervention versus control: by sanitation level (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 7 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.38, 0.83] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.80 [0.64, 1.00] |
|
|
Comparison 18. Water quality intervention versus control: by sanitation level (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.48 [0.31, 0.75] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.44 [0.28, 0.69] |
|
|
Comparison 19. Water quality intervention versus control: by sanitation level (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 7 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.39 [0.28, 0.55] |
| | | 3 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.43 [0.09, 2.09] |
|
|
Comparison 20. Water quality intervention versus control: simple and compound interventions (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 10 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.55 [0.26, 1.17] |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.85 [0.70, 1.03] |
| | | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.61 [0.46, 0.81] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.75 [0.70, 0.80] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.77 [0.71, 0.84] |
|
|
Comparison 21. Water quality intervention versus control: simple and compound interventions (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 6 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.52 [0.32, 0.86] |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.29 [0.14, 0.59] |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.36 [0.07, 1.81] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.44 [0.28, 0.69] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.44 [0.28, 0.69] |
|
|
Comparison 22. Water quality intervention versus control: simple and compound interventions (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 11 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.07 [0.88, 1.29] |
| | | 4 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.71 [0.59, 0.86] |
| | | 3 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.26 [0.10, 0.69] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.37, 0.84] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.56 [0.37, 0.84] |
|
|
Comparison 23. Water quality intervention versus control: simple and compound interventions (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: all ages | 13 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 6 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.64 [0.53, 0.77] |
| | | 1 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.52 [0.30, 0.90] |
| | | 3 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.77 [0.58, 1.03] |
| | | 3 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.60 [0.43, 0.84] |
| | | 4 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.70 [0.59, 0.84] |
|
|
Comparison 24. Water quality intervention versus control for RCTs: by methodological quality (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: by allocation sequence | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 2 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.37 [0.15, 0.92] |
| | | 2 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.73 [0.61, 0.87] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by allocation concealment | 8 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.65 [0.49, 0.86] |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.63, 0.99] |
| | 3 Diarrhoea: by follow up | 18 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.65 [0.49, 0.86] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.28 [0.14, 0.57] |
| | | 11 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.81 [0.73, 0.89] |
| | 4 Diarrhoea: by blinding | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.28, 1.06] |
| | | 3 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.66 [0.47, 0.92] |
|
|
Comparison 25. Water quality intervention versus control for RCTs: by methodological quality (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: by allocation sequence | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.28 [0.14, 0.57] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.61, 1.03] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by allocation concealment | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.28 [0.14, 0.57] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.61, 1.03] |
| | 3 Diarrhoea: by follow up | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.28 [0.14, 0.57] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.79 [0.61, 1.03] |
| | 4 Diarrhoea: by blinding | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.39 [0.17, 0.90] |
|
|
Comparison 26. Water quality intervention versus control for RCTs: by methodological quality (longitudinal prevalence ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: allocation sequence | 10 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 9 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.51 [0.23, 1.14] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.07 [0.88, 1.30] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by allocation concealment | 10 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 9 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.51 [0.23, 1.14] |
| | | 1 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.07 [0.88, 1.30] |
| | 3 Diarrhoea: by follow up | 9 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.54 [0.43, 0.67] |
| | | 5 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.89 [0.76, 1.04] |
| | 4 Diarrhoea: by blinding | 10 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 3 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.07 [0.88, 1.29] |
| | | 7 | | Long. prev. ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.45 [0.18, 1.08] |
|
|
Comparison 27. Water quality intervention versus control for RCTs: by methodological quality (odds ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: by allocation sequence | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 7 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.66 [0.52, 0.83] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.63, 0.74] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by allocation concealment | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 7 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.66 [0.52, 0.83] |
| | | 2 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.69 [0.63, 0.74] |
| | 3 Diarrhoea: by follow up | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.48 [0.32, 0.71] |
| | | 5 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.75 [0.68, 0.84] |
| | 4 Diarrhoea: by blinding | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 9 | | Odds ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.68 [0.59, 0.79] |
|
|
Comparison 28. Water quality intervention versus control for quasi-RCTs: by methodological quality (rate ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: by comparability of characteristics | 6 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 4 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.67 [0.54, 0.83] |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.0 [0.89, 1.12] |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.94 [0.73, 1.21] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by contemporaneous of data collection | 11 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 10 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.59 [0.46, 0.75] |
| | | 1 | | Rate ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.0 [0.89, 1.12] |
|
|
Comparison 29. Water quality intervention versus control for quasi-RCTs: by methodological quality (risk ratios)
|
| Outcome or subgroup title | No. of studies | No. of participants | Statistical method | Effect size |
|---|
| | 1 Diarrhoea: by comparability of characteristics | 3 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 2 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.45 [0.43, 0.47] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.44 [0.28, 0.69] |
| | 2 Diarrhoea: by contemporaneous of data collection | 11 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | Subtotals only |
| | | 10 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 0.59 [0.46, 0.75] |
| | | 1 | | Risk ratio (Random, 95% CI) | 1.0 [0.89, 1.12] |
|
|
