Global information ethics: Intercultural perspectives on past and future research

Background and Context

Ethics as reflection on morality is widely accepted among philosophers beginning with Aristotle, the founder of ethics as an academic discipline. As Rafael Capurro (2008), who heads the International Center for Information Ethics (ICIE), reminds us:

As a self-referential process ethics is an unending quest on explicit and implicit use of the moral code, that is to say of respect or disrespect, with regard to individual and social communication. In other words, ethics observes the ways we communicate with each other as moral persons and the ways this moral identity is understood. There is, indeed, no unbiased ethical observer. (p. 21)

Ethical issues have been addressed in libraries and other cultural institutions, corporations, nonprofit institutions, academia, government agencies at all levels, library and information science research, and in the media. (e.g., Froehlich, 1992, 2004; Hauptman, 1988; Smith, 1997; Woodward, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c). Increasingly, questions more specifically related to information throughout its life cycle have been within the Information Science and Technology discipline and practice and within organizations and institutions of all types. Terminology used includes ethics in librarianship, ethics and computers, technology and ethics, and other similar terms. Since the late 1980s, it was often referred to as the ethics of information in society. Since the first appearance of the term in 1988, this topic more commonly has been referred to as Information Ethics (IE). Robert Hauptman (1988) used the term in the first chapter of Ethical Challenges in Librarianship, which is the first use in English. In contrasting the moral standpoints of professional neutrality and social responsibility with regard to the provision of information and its use, Hauptman referred to “the dynamic and complex area of information ethics” (p. 3). In German, the first use was in Rafael Capurro's (1988) article entitled Informationsethos und informationsethik—Gedankenzum verantwortungsvollen handeln im bereich der fachinformation [Information ethos and information ethics—Ideas to take responsible action in the field of information]. Capurro (1988) challenged information professionals to take responsibility and action for information policy in professional and public settings. He saw IE as the appropriate term for the contemporary information ethos or environment. The third appeared in the criminal justice literature (DeMaio, 1988).

IE Within the Disciplines

A more extended definition of IE includes concern with the moral dilemmas and ethical conflicts that arise in interactions between human beings and information (creation, organization, dissemination, and use), information and communications technologies (ICTs), and information systems. Analogous to medical ethics, bioethics and also environmental ethics, described most broadly as the ethics of living, biological, or natural systems, IE in the last 2 years has been converging with bioethics through the discipline of medical information into a new field called bioinfoethics. Questions about the information content of the Human Genome Project and other genetics initiatives map to some of the major themes established by IE (e.g., transparency, ownership and integrity of intellectual property, indigenous knowledge and other cultural issues, balancing privacy of personally identifiable information with security, and freedom of expression).

The history and the professional and scholarly literature of IE ethics in its first 20 years parallel and are increasingly intertwined with library ethics; information systems ethics; computer ethics; cyberethics; journalism, communication, and media ethics; image ethics; Internet ethics; and Web ethics. Each of these areas of applied ethics shares roots and relationships with the others and with a wide variety of fields, including engineering ethics and business ethics. Because of the broad and diverse use of terms relating to information as a phenomenon, the term Information Ethics will likely continue to subsume other terminology such as reference ethics, archiving ethics, and networking ethics. The divisions of academic discourse are of interest to those who study scholarly communication, knowledge creation, and the social epistemology of applied ethics.

Acceptance of IE in the Discipline

In 1989, “Information Ethics” appeared in programs of conferences sponsored by two graduate schools of library and information science. “Information Ethics: Concerns for Librarianship and the Information Industry” was the theme of the April conference at Rutgers University (Mintz, 1990). The second appearance of the term was in the title of the keynote address of Clifford Christians delivered in October at the Allerton Park Institute on Ethics and the Librarian (Lancaster, 1991). Christians, a professor of communications, offered a similar call to that of Capurro (1988) for professional initiative. Christians, in his keynote address entitled Information Ethics in a Complicated Age, followed the thought of Jacques Ellul (1964), a long-time critic of technology. Christians urged serious consideration of strict ethical norms to constrain the impact of information technologies. Christians, in contrast to Capurro, was not very optimistic about the capacity of human beings to restrain the negative effects of technology. Thus, developing IE as a strong moral force is essential if professionals are to be guided themselves and to influence public policy. He saw IE as the appropriate term for the contemporary information ethos or environment. The third appearance of the term appeared in the criminal justice literature (DeMaio, 1988).

IE Within Library and Information Science Education

Although the term IE was not used, on January 26, 1989, the University of Pittsburgh initiated the Dean's Forum on Information Ethics. Presented by the Reverend Robert Drinan, S.J. Professor of Law and faculty advisor to the Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics, and former U.S. Representative from Massachusetts, the lecture “The Ethics of Information in Society,” helped provide the basis for the course the School of Information Sciences (then School of Library and Information Science) had decided to introduce. The forum continued with a series of experts such as John Leo (of the University of Rhode Island, who spoke on Robert Mapplethorpe), Pamela Samuelson (then professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh, who questioned: “Who Owns Information?”), Martin Walker (then U.S. Bureau Chief of The Guardian, who spoke on “Ethics and the Media”), and Rafael Capurro in 2006. The forum has attracted a diverse audience from the larger academic community and has continued to shape the course.

Courses on IE

In Fall 1990, a master's course for students across the School of Information Sciences at the University of Pittsburgh was introduced, team taught by Professor Stephen Almagno, O.F.M., and Carbo (then Dean of the School), initially called “The Ethics of Information in Society,” to educate students about ethical issues in the information professions. Over the years as the course has evolved, it has attracted students from all three programs at both the master's and Ph.D. levels (with some undergraduate seniors) as well as students from business, law, psychology, engineering, public and international affairs, and other programs, and a few students from Carnegie Mellon University. A small number of other universities, including Drexel, introduced courses specifically on what became “Information Ethics” around that time. According to the listing on the ICIE Web site (http://icie.zkm.de/teaching), currently more than 100 individuals are teaching IE courses around the world, with some individuals teaching courses in more than one country and with 35 in North America.

Conferences on IE

In addition to the conferences noted earlier, beginning in 1997, conferences on the “Ethics of Electronic Information in the 21st Century” were held at the University of Memphis (e.g., Mendina, 2000; Rockenbach & Mendina, 2003). The subject of IE also has gained international interest, as demonstrated by recent activities starting with the first UNESCO Conference of InfoEthics in 1997 entitled “First International Congress on Ethical, Legal and Societal Aspects of Digital Information.” In 2003, an invitational conference was held in Karlsruhe, Germany in 2004, under the leadership of the ICIE with support from Volkswagen-Stiftung. The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS, 2003) developed the “Declaration of Principles: Building the Information Society: A Global Challenge in the New Millennium,” and in February 2007, the “First African Conference on Information Ethics” was held in South Africa. Building on the 2007 conference, UNESCO and the South African government will support a training workshop on IE and E-Government in sub-Saharan Africa to be held in August 2008.

Journals on IE

By 1992, the first journal appeared. In describing the scope of the journal, Hauptman (1992) said:

The Journal of Information Ethics deals with ethics in all areas of information or knowledge production and dissemination. This includes, but is not limited to, library and information science, education for these professions, technology, government publication and legislation, graphic display, computer security, database management, disinformation, peer review, privacy, censorship, cyberspace, and information liability approached from sociological, philosophical, theoretical, and applied perspectives. (p. 00)

From the beginning, the Journal of Information Ethics has been broad in its scope. The articles in the first issue covered a wide variety of subjects, including AIDS testing, online education, erotic and pornographic literature, and the firing of Will Manley from the Wilson Library Bulletin by its publishers, gifts to libraries, and data theft. In his first editorial, Hauptman (1992) spoke of the “ethical necessities” posed by information that go far beyond the library and information profession.

The International Review of Information Ethics (IRIE), formerly the International Journal of Information Ethics (renamed due to a similarity of names with the Journal of Information Ethics), is the official scholarly publication of ICIE and was first published in 2004. It envisions an international as well as intercultural discussion focusing on the ethical impacts of information technology on human practices and thinking, social interaction, other areas of science and research, and the society itself.

IE, as understood here, deals with ethical questions in the field of digital production and reproduction of phenomena and processes such as the exchange, combination, and use of information. Maintaining a broad focus on the corresponding ethical issues and being open for the fast developments in the field, the IRIE is particularly devoted to ethical questions of all kinds of digital devices affecting through their code and/or content social interaction.

There are now several other journals in the IE field, including Ethics and Information Technology, the International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, and ICES: Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, and the IJIRE: International Journal of Internet Research Ethics (in http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/SOIS/cipu/ijire/index/html). A complete list appears on the ICIE Web site (http://icie.zkm.de/publications/journals).

Perspectives on Global IE

As is often the case with Perspectives sections of the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, this one was years in the making, beginning with an initial approach to Martha Smith to edit a section and her approach to Toni Carbo to co-edit; through a series of discussions to shape the content, a call for papers, and invitations to selected authors; through review of articles; to the determination of which articles should be included, with revisions of several of them; to the final set of articles included in this issue. The editorial process and the waiting period for space in an issue add time to the final appearance in an issue. The editors are grateful to the authors for their fine articles and for their patience with getting this Perspectives in print, and to the Perspectives Editor, Lois Lunin, for her editorial work. We also extend our thanks to Jeffrey Neher and David Perrotta for their assistance with the compilation and formatting of the bibliography.

This Perspectives on Global Information Ethics includes six articles as well as a bibliography of publications used in teaching IE. The distinguished authors include scholars from both coasts of the United States, South Africa, Macau, the United Kingdom, and Germany (originally from Uruguay). In her thoughtful article entitled The Problems of Information Naïveté, Roberta Brody (Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Library and Information Studies, Queens College, City University of New York) addresses the fundamental difference between to know of and to know about. She considers information naïveté as “a condition that may be no more than process involved in producing an artifact”, noting that dilemmas that arise from it seem to be situated in the realm of applied ethics. Probing beyond the basic understanding of it as “nothing more than ignorance in or carelessness in the handling of ‘second hand knowledge’”, she addresses the concepts of media bias, possessive memory, limited contexts, limited abilities, information deficits and competence, and information failure. While one may well quibble with her focus on information as consumable, her argument that databases should come packaged with warning labels about adverse effects and other cautions, similar to labels on drugs, are sound. Her argument that codes of ethics in the information industry should demand competence, authenticity, or even the absence of harm from the creators of information demands our attention. Perhaps a future ASIS&T conference could bring together representatives from the information industry with information professionals from academia and not-for-profit institutions to address the need for the producers, disseminators, and aggregators of information to “be less information naïve; to be more questioning, less arrogant, less possessed by the memories of past market conditions”.

In strong contrast to the producers, disseminators, and aggregators referred to by Brody are the highly information literate archivists and records managers. Richard Cox, a leading international archival educator and scholar, addresses archival ethics using a case study of a political poster on the cover of the American Archivist. He provides background on archival ethics, including applied concepts in both ethics and accountability, and discusses corporate archives and the ethical quest, noting that codes of ethics “can become useless in the corporate environment that has spun out of control”. Little has been written in the business archives or records management literature addressing the topics of corporate ethics and social responsibility, and this area deserves much more research and attention. The case study of the political poster, called “Sun Mad” as a parody of the Sun Maid corporation, provides an excellent example to question ethical reasoning concerning matters that offend individuals and organizations and the responses of individuals, organizations, and corporations to these challenges. Citing his personal experience in writing a letter and the responses to it, he uses a case to address ethical issues related to professional self-censorship, questions of how corporations administer records to provide a positive image, and manipulation of documentary heritage. Cox also raises the bigger question of what archivists and records managers—and one might add all information professionals—will do to address these important questions.

Providing a very different perspective, G.M. Reed from the International Institute for Software Technology at the U.N. University in Macau and J.W. Sanders from the Programming Research Group and Information Ethics Group at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom address the principle of distribution, a normative principle for the behavior of contemporary computing ad communication systems. This principle argues that in a distributed multi-agent system, control resides as much as possible with the individuals constituting the system rather than in centralized agents. When this is unfeasible or it becomes inappropriate due to environmental changes, control moves upwards to an appropriate intermediate level instead of being imposed from above. The authors developed their original principle, first called the principle of distributed ethics, in response to a proposal by Elisabeth Porter for ethical strategies for human security. They contend that problems in computer ethics arise from a policy vacuum concerning the use of new technology and that the standard normative ethical principles are incomplete for reasoning about such problems. Using a series of examples, including spam, they provide evidence that the richness of the principle of distribution derives from the fact that it can be applied at many levels of abstraction, the level being determined by the kind of analysis sought. The examples they give for applying the principle to issues of mobile user ability to generate spontaneously a secure network, an open-source software provision, and a response to adversity provide evidence of the use of the principle to resolve a series of issues. The principle deserves greater attention and testing in global situations, and is a promising area for future research.

Kenneth Himma from the Department of Philosophy at Seattle Pacific University provides insight into several contemporary philosophical disputes related to the justification of intellectual property (IP). He questions whether the state is morally justified in affording content creators a legal right to exclude others from the content of their creations. He provides an in-depth overview and analysis of the complex issues and arguments on all sides of the IP debate. Beginning with a thoughtful discussion in response to the question of whether IP is really property, he presents arguments against and for IP protection, identifying the special character of intellectual entities and the social character of intellectual content, and addressing concepts such as “information should be free,” the information commons, and the value of free expression. Himma presents several arguments from investment, including the classical Lockean argument for original acquisition of property, realizing that the existence of a moral right to property depends critically on the idea that persons can acquire a property right in objects to which no one else has a prior moral claim or entitlement. Transfer to someone else is justified on the strength of autonomy considerations. He also presents what he calls the personality argument based on the idea that an individual enjoys an exclusive moral claim to the acts and content of his or her personality. An individual's personality is understood to include a variety of character traits, experiences, preferences, knowledge, and dispositions. He identifies the shortcoming in arguments against IP protection as the fact that none pays sufficient attention to the issue of whether authors have a morally protected interest in the contents of their creations. In arguments for IP protection, he contends that a shortcoming is the short shrift they give to the issue of whether people have a morally protected interest in the content created by others. Both the interests of the authors and of other persons are relevant. Drawing thoughtfully on the different views and perspectives, he discusses ways to balance the interests of authors and others, including the interests of authors in their time and labor, interests of other persons, and ways to weigh the interests. Using the “ends not justifying the means” argument, he reminds us that while the interests of authors in their creations should be protected by law as a matter of political morality, this should not imply that the content of any specific body of IP is morally justified. The state is not given carte blanche to do whatever it wants to protect a legitimate moral interest. His survey and evaluation of diverse arguments for and against IP protection conclude that some IP protection is morally legitimate and that some stringent laws providing limited control over the disposition of intellectual creations are justified.

Complementing the articles on specific issue areas in IE presented in the first four articles (i.e., information naïveté, whistle-blowing over manipulation of records and limits on freedom of expression, the principle of distribution, and intellectual property), the final two articles discuss IE for and from Africa and global social justice. Note that the paper on Africa is written by an internationally renowned scholar who was born in Uruguay and has lived and worked for many years in Germany, where he heads the International Center for Information Ethics at Stuttgart Media University. The article on global social justice is written by an Afrikaner (based on his dissertation at the University of Pretoria, South Africa) who lives in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he is Dean and Professor of the School of Information Studies, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Capurro's article, based on a keynote address he presented at the first African Information Ethics Conference February 5–7, 2007, in Pretoria, South Africa, provides a comprehensive overview of IE research in and about Africa and of the Conference. Drawing on literature on African oral and written traditions of philosophy, he refers to several African philosophical and ethical perspectives, including ubuntu (i.e., the principles of sharing and caring for one another), conceptual decolonization, and common aphorisms. According to Capurro, two aphorisms that are found in almost all indigenous African languages translate to “to be human is to affirm one's humanity by recognizing the humanity of other and, on that basis, establish humane respectful relations with them,” and “if and when one is faced with a decisive choice between wealth and the preservation of life of another human being, then one should opt for the preservation of life” (p. 00). Of course, these are very similar to tenets of many religions, the U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and long-standing moral principles. To conclude his detailed overview, Capurro reminds us that “the final goal of ethics is not just to speak about the good but to do the good, and, we could add, to dream about it” (p. 00).

This Perspectives section ends with a global perspective on social justice in the global information society by Johannes Britz. Discussing social justice as a moral norm that can be used to address the ethical challenges facing the global information society, Britz cites the WSIS Declaration of Principles, focusing on three: (a) the need to uphold the fundamental values of human freedom, (b) the need to respect human rights, and (c) the requirement that there should be no abusive use of modern Information and Communications Technologies (ICT).

Britz contends that we do not live in a totally new information society but rather in a continuation of previous relationships, but that ICTs have changed the nature of these relationships and have affected our socioeconomic and political activities. He also argues that ICTs have transformed information and knowledge landscapes as well as the ethical and socioeconomic landscape. He defines four criteria for a global information society: (a) a well-developed, well-maintained, and affordable ICT infrastructure; (b) the need for ICT to provide access to content for participating meaningfully in all activities of the information society; (c) physical delivery of goods and services, not just information about them; and (d) human intellectual capability, including educational infrastructure and research and development. Britz identifies several moral “wrongs” of the information society, such as brain drain, unfair exploitation and misappropriation of indigenous knowledge and artifacts, and so on. He presents well-supported arguments for the need for a moral consensus that is in some sense universally acceptable, beginning with agreement by all bodies and role players involved in addressing ethical concerns. This moral foundation is justice, which is inclusive and morally acceptable. He enumerates and describes basic principles of justice: equitable treatment and judgment using the same norms for all people; each person gets that which is due to him or her, what each deserves whether good or bad; and inequality, when it must exist, must be based on certain norms and may not be at the expense of the equal value of all people. He describes several categories of justice related to these principles and concludes with an emphasis on the fact that one cannot distinguish between domestic and global justice.

A bibliography of materials used in teaching IE over nearly 20 years by the two coeditors completes this Perspectives section. The bibliography is not intended to be comprehensive but instead is a collection of material that is relevant and illustrative of issues of IE in a wide variety of areas, and is only a slice of a much larger body of work. It is offered as a point of departure for those teaching IE. This Perspectives section was prepared to provide a sample of the range of research and development under way around the world and to encourage further research, discussion, and debate on this crucial topic for Information Science and for the Global Information Society.

Bibliography

Toni Carbo, David Perrotta, Jeffrey Neher, and Martha M. Smith

Introduction

The following bibliography, although it consists of well over 400 entries, is not by any means a comprehensive list of Information Ethics (IE) sources. Rather, it reflects the materials used by Toni Carbo and Martha Smith in our graduate-level teaching of IE over the years. Jeffrey Neher and David Perrotta, both MLIS students at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences, provided substantive assistance in formatting the bibliography and identifying potential additions to it. Some recent items have been added to the list because they will be used in the teaching of IE in the next academic year. Although we have tried to assemble a collection of material that is relevant and illustrative of issues of IE in a wide variety of areas, the result of our efforts is still only a slice of a much larger body of work. It is offered here as a point of departure, particularly for those interested in teaching IE, and not as an authoritative or comprehensive bibliography. A much more comprehensive bibliography is available at the Web site of the International Center for Information Ethics (http://icie.zkm.de).

Abelson, R. (2001, July 1). Anti-bias agency is short of will and cash. The New York Times, p. 3.1.

Albanese, A.R. (2002). Cyberspace: The community frontier. Library Journal, 127 (19), 42–44.

Adam, A. (2005). Delegating and distributing morality: Can we inscribe privacy protection in a machine? Ethics and Information Technology, 7(4), 233–242.

Alfino, M. (1995). Breaking managerial information monopolies: Ethical considerations in setting workplace information policy. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(1), 5–10.

Alfino, M. (1995). The information ethics of polite culture. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(2), 9–11.

Alfino, M., & Pierce, L. (1997). Information ethics for librarians. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Almagno, S. (2003). Ma Position Intellectuelle. In B. Rockenbach & T. Mendina (Eds.), Ethics and electronic information: A Festschrift for Stephen Almagno (pp. 16–24). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Alterman, A. (2003). A piece of yourself: Ethical issues in biometric identification. Ethics and Information Technology, 5, 139–150.

American Library Association. Code of ethics. Retrieved April 21, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm. Adopted June 28, 1997, Amended January 22, 2008.

American Society for Information Science. (1992). Sessions on Information democracy. In D. Shaw (Ed.), Celebrating change. Proceedings of the 55th annual meeting of the American Society for Information Science (SIG/BSS/FIS/TIS) (pp. 301–309). White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry.

American Society for Information Science. (1994). ASIS professional guidelines. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science, 20 (December/January), 4.

American Society for Information Science and Technology. (2004). ASIS&T professional guidelines. Retrieved June 11, 2004, from http://www.asis.org/aboutASIS/professional_guidelines.html

Angel, C. (2000). The right to privacy. Journal of Information Ethics, 9(2), 11–25.

Archive Policy Special Interest Group, School of Information Management and Systems, University of California, Berkeley. (2002, December 13–14). Recommendations for managing removal requests and preserving archival integrity. Retrieved October 2, 2006, from http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/conferences/aps/removal-policy.html. Article 19 (organization). (1991). Information freedom and censorship: World Report 1991. Chicago: American Library Association.

Asheim, L. (1953). Not censorship but selection. Wilson Library Bulletin, 28, 63–67.

Asheim, L. (1983). Selection and censorship: A reappraisal. Wilson Library Bulletin, 58(3), 180–184.

Association of Computing Machinery. ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. Retrieved June 11, 2004, from http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics

Baase, S. (1997). A gift of fire: Social, legal and ethical issues in computing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bailey, J. (1992). First we reshape our computers, then our computers reshape us: The broader intellectual impact of parallelism. Daedalus, 121(1), 67–86.

Baker, S.L. (1992). Needed: An ethical code for library administrators. Journal of Library Administration, 16, 1–17.

Baldwin, D. (1996). The academic librarian's human resources handbook. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Balnaves, J. (1990). Ethics and librarianship. The education and training of information professionals. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.

Barbaro, M. (2002, July 30). Princeton apologizes for web breach: [FINAL Edition], The Washington Post. p. A.03. Retrieved March 18, 2008, from ProQuest National Newspapers Core database. (Document ID: 143423451).

Barroso, P. (2000). Computer ethics. In B. Pattyn (Ed.), Media ethics: Opening social dialogue (pp. 315–328). Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

Bearman, T.C. (1981). Do we need a code of ethics for information science? American Society for Information Science Bulletin, 8(1), 36.

Behar, J.E. (1993). Critique of computer ethics: Technology as ideology. Journal of Information Ethics, 2(2), 27–43.

Beghtol, C. (2005). Ethical decision-making for knowledge representation and organization systems for global use. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 56(9), 903–912.

Bergmann, M. (2002). How many feminists does it take to make a joke? In J. Rudinow & A Graybosch (Eds.), Ethics and values in the information age (pp. 186–200). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Thompson Learning.

Blanton, T S. (2001). Information ethics and government power. In N. Kranich (Ed.), From the White House e-mail to the Stasi files. Libraries and democracy: The cornerstones of liberty (pp. 129–139). Chicago: American Library Association.

Blok, P. (2001). The limits of informational self-determination. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 71–85). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Bocij, P. (2004). Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet age and how to protect your family. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Borland, J. (2003, January 7). Same old song, different meaning for P2P. Retrieved September 23, 2006, from http://news.com.com/2100-1023-979532.html

Branscomb, A.W. (1994). Who owns information? New York: HarperCollins.

Britz, J.J., & Lor, P. (2004). A moral perspective on South–North web archiving. Journal of Information Science, 30(6), 540–549.

Brody, R. (2003). Information ethics in the design and use of metal. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 22(2), 34–39.

Brody, R. (2006). Information ethics in the business research environment. Online, 30(1), 38–41.

Brooks, D. (2001). The organization kid. Retrieved April 21, 2001, from http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200104/brooks

Buchanan, E.A. (2002). Information ethics in a world-wide context. In J. Rudinow & A Graybosch (Eds.), Ethics and values in the information age (pp. 35–44). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Thompson Learning.

Buchanan, E.A. (2004). Ethics in library and information science: What are we teaching? Journal of Information Ethics, 13(1), 51–60.

Buchanan, E.A. (2004). Readings in virtual research ethics: Issues and controversies. Hershey, PA: Information Science.

Burbules, N.C. (2001). Paradoxes of the web: The ethical dimensions of credibility. Library Trends, 49(3), 441–453.

Burress, L. (1988). The battle of the books: Library censorship in the public schools 1950–1985. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow.

Buschman, J. (2006). On not revising the ALA code of ethics: An alternate proposal. Library Philosophy and Practice, 8(2), 1–13.

Bushing, M.C. (1993). Acquisition ethics: The evolution of models for hard times. Library Acquisitions, 17(1), 47–52.

Bynum, T.W., & Rogerson, S. (1995). Global information ethics: Selected papers from ETHICOMP95, the International Conference on the Ethical Issues of Using Information Technology. Science and Engineering Ethics, 2, 129–256.

Bynum, T.W., & Rogerson, S. (2004). Computer ethics & professional responsibility. Retrieved April 5, 2007, from http://www.southernct.edu/organizations/rccs/textbook/intro_remarks.html

Byrd, G.D. (1991). The ethical implications of health sciences library economics. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association, 79(4), 382–387.

Cahan, M.A. (1986–1987). Jewish medical ethics: Issues, sources, and the librarian's role. Judaica Librarianship, 3(1–2), 120–124.

Cameron, J.M. (1986). Self-actualization and the sinful creature. Communio, 13(1), 49–63.

Capurro, R. (1985). Moral issues in information science. Journal of Information Science, 11(3), 113–123.

Capurro, R. (1988). Informationsethos und informationsethik—Gedankenzum verantwortungsvollen handeln im bereich der fachinformation [Information ethos and information ethics—Ideas to take responsible action in the field of information]. Nachrichten für Dokumentation, 39, 1–4.

Capurro, R. (1996). Information technology and technologies of the self. Journal of Information Ethics, 5, 19–28.

Capurro, R. (2004, October). Intercultural information ethics. Paper presented at International ICIE Symposium 2004: Localizing the Internet: Ethical issues in intercultural perspective. Karlsruhe, Germany: Center for Art and Media. In R. Capurro, J. Frühbauer, & T. Hausmanninger (Eds.), Localizing the Internet. Ethical aspects in intercultural perspective (pp. 21–38). ICIE Series Vol. 4. Munich: Fink 2007.

Capurro, R. (2005). Privacy: An intercultural perspective. Ethics and Information Technology, 7(1), 37–47.

Capurro, R., & Frühbauer, J. (Eds.). (2007). Localizing the Internet: Ethical aspects in intercultural perspective. Munich: Fink Verlag.

Carbo, T. (2004). Models for ethical decision-making for use in teaching information ethics: Challenges for educating diverse information professionals. International Journal of Information Ethics, 2 (pp. 1–9). Retrieved April 26, 2007, from http://container.zkm.de/ijie/ijie/no002/ijie_002_08_carbo.pdf

Carbo, T., & Almagno, S. (2001). Information ethics: The duty, privilege and challenge of educating information professionals. Library Trends, 49(3), 510–518.

Carbo, T. (2007). Information rights: Trust and human dignity in e-government. International Review of Information Ethics, 7 (pp. 1–7). Available at: http://www.i-r-i-e.net/inhalt/007/17-carbo.pdf

Carlin, A.P. (2003). Disciplinary debates and bases of interdisciplinary studies: The place of research ethics in library and information science. Library and Information Science Research, 25, 3–18.

Carter, S.L. (1997). Integrity. New York: Harper Perennial.

Cavalier, R.J. (Ed.). (2005). The impact of the internet on our moral lives. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Chambers, J.E. (2000). Privacy, sex, and norms. Journal of Information Ethics, 9(1), 10–25.

Chappell, T. (1998). Theories of ethics: Overview. In Encyclopedia of applied ethics. San Diego: Academic Press.

Chepaitis, E. (2000). The criticality of information ethics in emerging economies: Beyond piracy and privacy. Journal of Information Ethics, 9, 5–7.

Christians, C.G. (1991). Information ethics in a complicated age. In F.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian (pp. 3–17). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Clarke, D.S. (1992). Knowledge and ethics. Journal of Information Ethics, 1(2), 22–31.

Cline, E. (1992). Here comes a chopper to chop off your head: Freedom of expression vs. censorship in America. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(2), 18–32.

Cohen, E., & Cornwell, L. (1989). A question of ethics: Developing information system ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 8(6), 431–437.

Cohen, J. (2001, May 17). He-mails, she-mails: Where sender meets gender. The New York Times, pp. D1, D9.

Cohen, P. (2001, June 30). Judicial reasoning is all too human. The New York Times, p. B7.

Cohen, T. (2002). Taste, morality, and the propriety of joking. In J. Rudinow & A. Graybosch (Eds.), Ethics and values in the Information Age (pp. 200–218). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Thompson Learning.

Collins, D. (2000). Virtuous individuals, organizations, and political economy: A new age theological alternative to capitalism. Journal of Business Ethics, 26, 319–340.

Computer Ethics Institute. (2005). Ten commandments of computer ethics. Retrieved April 5, 2007, from http://www.cpsr.org/issues/ethics/cei

Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility © 1987–2005. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from http://www.cpsr.org/

Comte-Sponville, A. (2001). Humility. In A small treatise on the great virtues (pp. 140–148). New York: Metropolitan Books.

Congressional Research Service. (2004). CRS Report No. RS21915. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress.

Contreras, S., & Jefferson, R.N. (2005). Ethical perspectives of library and information science graduate students in the United States. New Library World, 106(1), 58–66.

Cox, R.J. (1999). Privacy, access, and human values in the world of the records professional. Records and Information Retrieval Report, 15, 1–16.

Cox, R.J. (2000). Accountability, public scholarship, and library, information, and archival science educators. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 41, 94–105.

Cox, R.J. (2001). Testing the spirit of the information age. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(2), 51–66.

Cox, R.J. (2002). Lying about records. Records and Information Management Report, 18, 14–15.

Cox, R.J. (2005). Censorship and records. Records and Information Management Report, 21, 1–12.

Cox, R.J. (2006). Ethics, accountability and recordkeeping in a dangerous world. London: Facet.

Cox, R.J., & Wallace, D.A. (2002). Introduction. In R.J. Cox, & D.A. Wallace (Eds.). Archives and the public good: Accountability and records in modern society (pp. 1–18). Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Cronan, T.P., & Douglas, D.E. (2006). Toward a comprehensive ethical behavior model for information technology. Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 18(1), i–x.

Custer, B. (2004). The power of knowledge: Ethical, legal and technological aspects of data mining and group profiling in epidemiology. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Wolf Legal.

Dalai Lama. (1999). Ethics for the new millennium. New York: Riverhead Books.

Dark, M., Epstein, R., Morales, L., Countermine, T., Yuan, Q., Ali, M., et al. (2006). A framework for information security ethics education. Proceedings of the 10th Colloquium for Information Systems Security Education, pp. 109–115. University of Maryland, University College, Adelphi, MD. Accessed March 18, 2008: http://faculty.tamucommerce.edu/Imorales/publications/AFramework 2006.pdf

de Garis, H. (2005). The artilect war: Cosmists vs. Terrans. Palm Springs, CA: ETC.

Dejoie, R., Fowler, G., & Paradice, D. (1991). Ethical issues in information systems. Boston: Boyd and Fraser.

de Laat, P.B. (2005). Trusting virtual trust. Ethics and Information Technology, 7(3), 167–180.

Del Vecchio, R.A. (1992). Privacy and accountability at the reference desk. The Reference Librarian, 38(4), 133–140.

Demac, D. (1990). Liberty denied: The current rise of censorship in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

DeMaio, H.B. (1988). Information ethics—It doesn't come naturally. Computer Security Journal, 5(1), 7–19.

DeMaio, H.B. (1990, April). Information ethics: A private perspective. Invited paper presented to the National Institute of Justice, Professional Conference on Information Technology Ethics, Washington, DC.

Denning, P.J. (1995). Editorial: Plagiarism in the Web. Communications of the ACM, 38(12), 29.

DePalma, P. (Ed.). (2005). Annual editions: Computers in society. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin.

Dervin, B. (1994). Information democracy: An examination of underlying assumptions. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(6), 369–385.

Diamond, T. (1994). Opinion: The escrowed encryption standard: The clipper chip and civil liberties. Internet Research, 4(3), 2–8.

Didsbury, H.F. (Ed.). (1992). Communications and the future: Prospects, promises, and problems. Bethesda, MD: World Future Society.

Dill, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2003). Ethics-related technology policies in schools. Social Science Computer Review, 21(3), 326–339.

Dishman, P., & Nitse, P. (1999). Disinformation usage in corporate communications: CI'ers beware. Competitive Intelligence Review, 10(4), 20–29.

Doctor, R.D. (1991). Information technologies and social equity: Confronting the revolution. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(3), 216–228.

Doctor, R.D. (1992). Social equity and information technologies: Moving toward information democracy. In M.E. Williams (Ed.), Annual review of information science and technology (ARIST), 27, 43–96.

Doctor, R.D. (1994). Seeking equity in the national information infrastructure. Internet Research, 4(3), 9–22.

Doherty, J.J. (2005). Towards self-reflection in librarianship: What is praxis? Progressive Librarian, 26, 11–17.

Dole, W.V., & Hurych, J.M. (2001). Values for librarians in the information age. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(2), 38–50.

Dowd, R.C. (1989). I want to find out how to freebase cocaine; Or, yet another unobtrusive test of reference performance. The Reference Librarian, 25–26, 483–493.

Drabenstott, J. (1986). Ethics in the library automation process: A forum of the consultants' corner. Library HiTech, 4(16), 107–119.

Drozdek, A. (1992). Pecunia non olet? (Does not money smell?) Journal of Information Ethics, 1(2), 60–69.

Dudley, E.P. (1991). Libraryland: A code in the head. Library Association Record, 93, 504.

Duguid, P. (2002). The social life of legal information: First impressions. First Monday, 7(9). Retrieved, September 25, 2006, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_9/duguid/index.html

Du Mont, R.R. (1991). Ethics in librarianship: A management model. In R. Hauptman (Ed.), Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 201–215.

Durbin, P.T. (Ed.). (1987). Technology and responsibility. Philosophy and Technology, 3. Norwell, MA, U.S.A.: Kluwer Academic.

Durbin, P.T. (Ed.). (1988). Technology and contemporary life. Philosophy and Technology, 4. Norwell, MA, U.S.A.: Kluwer Academic.

Durbin, P.T. (Ed.). (1990). Broad and narrow interpretation of philosophy of technology. Philosophy and Technology, 7. Norwell, MA, U.S.A.: Kluwer Academic.

Durbin, P.T., & Rapp, F. (Eds.). (1983). Philosophy and technology. Boston studies in the philosophy of science (Vol. 80). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.

Eakin, E. (2001, January 6). The intellectual class struggle. The New York Times, p. B9.

Eakin, E. (2001, July 7). What is the next big idea? The buzz is growing. The New York Times, p. B27.

Eaton, N.L. (1990). Freedom and equality of access to information: The Lacy Commission Report. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 111–125.

Eco, U. (1997). The birth of ethics. Index on Censorship, 26(3), 12–19.

Ellul, J. (1964). The technological society. New York: Knopf.

Elrod, E., & Smith, M.M. (2005). Information ethics. In C. Mitcham (Ed.), The encyclopedia of science, technology and society (pp. 1004–1011). Detroit, MI: Macmillan.

Emord, J.W. (1991). Freedom, technology, and the first amendment. San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy.

Electronic Privacy Information Center (2008). Retrieved September 25, 2006, from http://www.epic.org

Epstein, S.B. (1990). Ethical considerations in an automated environment. Library Journal, 115, 59–60.

Ermann, M.D., Williams, M.B., & Carranza, C. (Eds.). (1990). Computers, ethics, and society. New York: Oxford University Press.

Fairweather, N.B., Rogerson, S., & Sherratt, D. (2005). The challenge of raising ethical awareness: A case-based aiding system for use by computing and ICT students. Science and Engineering Ethics, 11(2), 299–315.

Ferré, F. (1988). Philosophy of technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Ferré, F. (Ed.). & Mitcham, C. (Guest Ed.). (1989). Ethics and technology. Research in philosophy and technology, 9. Greenwich, Conn., Jai Press.

Fine, S. (1996). How the mind of a censor works: The psychology of censorship. School Library Journal, 46(1), 23–27.

Finks, L.W. (1991). Librarianship needs a new code of professional ethics. American Libraries, 22, 84–90.

First African Information Ethics Conference: Ethical Challenges in the Information Age, Pretoria, South Africa. (2007, February). Proceedings. International Review of Information Ethics, Volume 7. http://www.i-r-i-e.net/issue7.htm

Fletcher, J. (1954). Morals and medicine: The moral problems of: The patient's right to know the truth, contraception, artificial insemination, sterilization, euthanasia. Boston: Beacon Press.

Fletcher, J. (1988). The ethics of genetic control: Ending reproductive roulette. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

Floridi, L. (1996). Brave.Net.World: The Internet as a disinformation superhighway? The Electronic Library, 14(5), 509–514.

Floridi, L. (1999). Information ethics: On the philosophical foundations of computer ethics. Ethics and Information Technology, 1(1), 37–56.

Floridi, L. (2001). Information ethics: An environmental approach to the digital divide. Paris: UNESCO World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology.

Floridi, L., & Sanders, J.W. (2003). Internet ethics: The constructionist values of Homo Poieticus. Retrieved September 26, 2006, from http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/research/areas/ieg/research_reports/r_reports.html#2003

Florman, S.C. (1981). Blaming technology: The irrational search for scapegoats. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Foerstel, H.N. (1991). Surveillance in the stacks: The FBI's library awareness program. Contributions in political science, No. 266. New York: Greenwood Press.

Forester, T., & Morrison, P. (1994). Computer ethics: Cautionary tales and ethical dilemmas in computing (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Foskett, D.J. (1962). The creed of the librarian: No politics, no religion, no morals. London: Library Association.

Foster, A.L. (2003). Elsevier's vanishing act. Chronicle of Higher Education, 49(18), A27.

Freeman, L., & Peace, A.G. (Eds.). (2005). Information ethics: Privacy and intellectual property. Hershey, PA: Idea Groups.

Fritch, J.W. (2003). Heuristics, tools, and systems for evaluating Internet information: Helping users assess a tangled web. Online Information Review, 27(5), 321–327.

Froehlich, T.J. (1990). Ethics, ideologies, and practices of information technology and systems. In Information in the year 2000: From research to applications: Proceedings of the 53rd annual meeting of the American Society for Information Science (Vol. 27, pp. 245–255). Medford, NJ: Learned Information.

Froehlich, T.J. (1991). Ethical considerations in technology transfer. In R. Hauptman (Ed.), Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 275–302.

Froehlich, T.J. (1992). Ethical considerations of information professionals. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 27, 291–324.

Froehlich, T.J. (1995). Library and information professions. In L.C. Becker & C.B. Becker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of ethics (pp. 711–716). New York: Garland.

Froehlich, T.J. (1997). Survey and analysis of legal and ethical issues for library and information services. UNESCO Report (Contract No. 401.723.4) for the International Federation of Library Associations. IFLA Professional Series. Munich: Saur.

Froehlich, T.J. (2003). Information ethics. International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge.

Froehlich, T.J. (2004). A brief history of information ethics. Textos univerisitaris de biblioteconomia i documentació, 13. http://www.ub.es/bid/13froe12.htm

Fuller, J. (2002). A letter to the chief executive. Harvard Business Review, 80(10), 94–99.

Fusaro, R.A. (2004). None of our business? Harvard Business Review, 82(12), 33–44.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, I: Librarians must provide the highest level of service through appropriate collections, fair policies, and skillful responses to all requests for assistance. School Library Journal, 36(2), 4.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, II: Librarians must resist all efforts by groups or individuals to censor library materials (Gift-bearing zealots often employ the same tactics as censors.) School Library Journal, 36(4), 4.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, III: Librarians must protect each user's right to privacy with respect to information sought or received, and materials consulted, borrowed, or acquired (Fending off the FBI is easier than stonewalling a concerned parent or teacher.) School Library Journal, 36(6), 4.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, IV: Librarians must adhere to the principles of due process and equality of opportunity in peer relationships and personnel actions. School Library Journal, 36(8), 4.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, V: Librarians must distinguish clearly in their actions and statements between their personal philosophies and attitudes and those of an institution or professional body. School Library Journal, 36(10), 4.

Gerhardt, L.N. (1990). Ethical back talk, VI: Librarians must avoid situations in which personal interest might be served or financial benefits gained at the expense of library users, colleagues, or the employing institution. School Library Journal, 36(12), 4.

Gerlach, N. (2004). The genetic imaginary: DNA in the Canadian criminal justice system. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Gert, B. (2004). Common morality: Deciding what to do. New York: Oxford University Press.

Gibson, W. (1984). Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books.

Goehner, D.M. (1990). Vendor–library relations: The ethics of working with vendors. In K.A. Schmidt (Ed.), Understanding the business of library acquisitions (pp. 137–151). Chicago: American Library Association.

Goehner, D.M. (1991). Ethical aspects of the librarian/vendor relationship. In G.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian (pp. 73–82). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Golden, F.A. (1990). The ethics of reference service for the public librarian. The Reference Librarian, 30, 157–166.

Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 93–102.

Goodrum, A., & Manion, M. (2000). The ethics of hacktivism. Journal of Information Ethics, 9(2), 51–59.

Gorniak-Kocikowska, K. (2001). Revolution and the library. Library Trends, 49(3), 454–469.

Gosseries, A. (2003). A case for restricted access. Journal of Information Ethics, 12(1), 56–66.

Gould, C.C. (Ed.). (1989). The information web: Ethical and social implications in computing. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press.

Grabosky, P.N., & Smith, R.G. (2001). Digital crime in the twenty-first century. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(1), 8–26.

Gray, R.A. (1994). Ecology and ethics: Is there a duty to nature? Reference Service Bulletin, 22(1), 57–74.

Gray, S.A., & Widzinski, L.J. (1993). Information technology in the health sciences library: An ethical perspective. Medical Reference Services Quarterly, 12(2), 45–55.

Graybosch, A.J. (2001). Bootlegs: Intellectual property and popular culture. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(1), 35–50.

Greiner, J.M. (1989). Professional views: Intellectual freedom as a professional ethic. Public Libraries, 28(2), 69–72.

Gremmels, G.S. (1991). Reference in the public interest: An examination of ethics. RQ, 30(3), 362–369.

Grimmelmann, J. (2006). Virtual borders: The interdependence of real and virtual worlds. First Monday, 11(2). Retrieved September 23, 2006, from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue11_2/grimmelmann/

Grinnell, F. (2002). The impact of ethics on research. Chronicle of Higher Education, 49(6), B15.

Halpenny, F.G. (1993). Responsibility of scholarly publishers. Scholarly Publishing, 24(4), 223–231.

Hamelink, C.J. (2000). Can human rights be a foundation for media ethics? In B. Pattyn (Ed.), Media ethics: Opening social dialogue (pp. 115–123) Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.

Hammond, J.S., Keeney, R.L., & Raiffa, H. (1998). The hidden traps in decision making. Harvard Business Review, 76(5), 47–58.

Hanes, H.E. (1946). Ethics of librarianship. Library Journal, 71, 848–851.

Harris, M.H., & Hannah, S. (1992). All that is solid melts into air: A prologomenon to library and information services in the post-industrial era. Journal of Information Ethics, 1, 70–81.

Harris, V. (2005). Archival ethics. IASA Journal, 25(5), 4–12.

Harris, V. (2005). Ethics and electronic recordmaking. In J. McLeod & C. Hare (Ed.), Managing electronic records (ch. 8, pp. 115–128). London: Facet.

Hauptman, R. (1988). Ethical challenges in librarianship. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Hauptman, R. (1991). Five assaults on our integrity. In F.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian (pp. 83–91). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Hauptman, R. (Ed.). (1991). Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 199–375.

Hauptman, R. (1988). Ethical challenges in librarianship. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Hauptman, R. (1991). Ethics and law librarianship: A panel discussion. Law Library Journal, 83, 1–19.

Hauptman, R., & Stichler, R.N. (Eds.). (1998). Ethics, information and technology: Readings. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Herring, M.Y., & White, H.S. (1995). Point/counterpoint. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(2), 12–17.

Hoad, T.C., & Zobel, J. (2003). Methods for identifying versioned and plagiarized documents. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(3), 203–215.

Hongladarom, S., & Ess, C. (Eds.). (2007). Information technology ethics: Cultural perspectives. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

Horton, F.W. Jr. (2000). The wisdom administrator: Waiting in the wings. Information Outlook, 4(9), 26–30.

Hsu, M., & Kuo, F. (2003). An investigation of volitional control in information ethics. Behaviour and Information Technology, 22(1), 53–62.

Humphreys, J. (2002). The best of intentions. Harvard Business Review, 80(7), 31–42.

Info-Ethics: First International Congress on Ethical, Legal and Societal Aspects of Digital Information. (1997, March 10–12). Sponsored by UNESCO, Monaco. In T. Carbo (Ed.), The international information and library review, 29(2): 111–260, 29(3/4): 261–516.

Introna, L.D., & Pouloudi, A. (1999). Privacy in the information age: Stakeholders, interests and values. Journal of Business Ethics, 22(1), 27–38.

Jackson, S.M. (1989). Reference education and the new technology. The Reference Librarian, 25–26, 541–555.

Jenkinson, E.B. (1990). The new age rage and schoolbook protest. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 36–50.

Johnson, B.S. (1989). A more cooperative clerk: The confidentiality of library records. Law Library Journal, 81(4), 769–802.

Johnson, D.G. (1997). Is the global information infrastructure a democratic technology? Computers and Society, 27(3), 20–26.

Johnson, D.G. (2001). Computer ethics (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Johnson, D.G. (2004). Computers, ethics, and social values (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Johnson, D.G., & Powers, T.M. (2005). Computer systems and responsibility: A normative look at technological complexity. Ethics and Information Technology, 7, 99–107.

Jonas, H. (1984) The imperative of responsibility: In search of an ethics for a technological age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Jones, R.A. (1994). The ethics of research in cyberspace. Internet Research, 4, 30–35.

Kealey, D.A. (1990). Revisioning environmental ethics. Albany: State University of New York Press.

King, S.S., & Cushman, D.P. (1995). Organizational ethics. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Vol. 56, Suppl. 19, pp. 307–318). New York: Dekker.

Klang, M., & Murray, A. (Eds.). (2005). Human rights in the digital age. London: Glasshouse Press.

Kochen, M. (1983). Information and society. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 18, 277–304.

Kochen, M. (1987). Ethics and information science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 83, 206–210.

Koehler, W. (2003). Professional values and ethics as defined by the LIS discipline. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 44(2), 99–119.

Koehler, W., & Pemberton, J.M. (2000). A search for core values: Towards a model code of ethics for information professionals. Journal of Information Ethics, 9(1), 26–54.

Koenig, M.E.D. (1981). Ethics in information science. Journal of Information Science, 3, 45–48, 104.

Koster, G.E. (1992). Ethics in reference service: Codes, case studies, or values? Reference Services Review, 20, 71–80.

Kostrewski, B.J., & Oppenheim, C. (1980). Ethics in information science. Journal of Information Science, 1, 227–283.

Kranzberg. M. (Ed.). (1980). Ethics in an age of pervasive technology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Kroesen, J.O. (2001). The empowerment of floating identities. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 143–157). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Kultgen, J. (1988). Ethics and professionalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Kultgen, J. (1998). The ideological use of professional codes. In R.N. Stichler & R. Hauptman (Eds.), Ethics, information and technology readings (pp. 273–290). Jefferson: McFarland.

Ladd, J. (1985). The quest for a code of professional ethics: An intellectual and moral confusion. In D.G. Johnson & J.W. Snapper (Eds.), Ethical issues in the use of computers (pp. 8–13). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

LaFollette, M.C. (1994). Avoiding plagiarism: Some thoughts on use, attribution, and acknowledgment. Journal of Information Ethics, 3(2), 25–35.

Lancaster, F.W. (Ed.). (1991). Ethics and the librarian. Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Lencioni, P.M. (2002). Make your values mean something. Harvard Business Review, 80(7), 113–117.

Leopold, A. (1987). A sand-county almanac [Special commemorative ed.; R. Finch, Introduction; C.W. Schwartz, Illustrator]. New York: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1949)

Lessig, L. (2004). Free culture: How big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity. New York: Penguin.

Levett, J. (1992). Libraries, information services, and the emerging concept of “a duty of care.” Australian Library Journal, 41(1), 3–13.

Levine, P. (2001). The internet and civil society. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 177–193). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Lewis, A.O. (Ed.). (1963). Of men and machines. New York: Dutton.

Lewis, G. (1997). Three faces of forgery. Poetry Review, 82(2), 6–8.

Library Association, (2002). The Library Association's code of professional conduct and guidance notes. Retrieved October 2, 2006, from http://www.la-hq.org.uk/directory/about/conduct.html

Lin, C., & Ding, C.G. (2003). Modeling information ethics: The joint moderating role of locus of control and job insecurity. Journal of Business Ethics, 48(4), 335–346.

Lindsey, J.A., & Prentice, A.E. (1985). Professional ethics and librarians. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Lonsdale, D., & Oppenheim, C. (1995). Attitudes toward ethical issues: A survey of U.K. reference librarians and schools of librarianship and information science. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(2), 69–78.

Lynch, C.A. (2001). When documents deceive: Trust and provenance as new factors for information retrieval in a tangled web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(1), 12–17.

MacNeil, H. (1992). Without consent: The ethics of disclosing personal information in public archives. Chicago: Society of American Archivists; Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.

Maheu, R. (1949). The right to information and the right to the expression of opinion. In E.H., Carr, & J. Maritain (Eds.) Human rights: Comments and interpretations (UNESCO; pp. 218–222). New York: Columbia University Press.

Mallory, M., & Moran, G. (1994). Scholarly search for the truth, and problems associated with indexing/abstracting. The Indexer, 19(2), 99–101.

Mangan, K.S. (2003, January 8). Accrediting board endorses stronger focus on ethics in business-school curriculum. Retrieved October 3, 2006, from http://chronicle.com/daily/2003/01/2003010805n.htm

Mappes, T.A., & Zembaty, J.S. (Eds.). (1982). Social ethics: Morality and social policy (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Margolis, J.Z. (1989). The technological self. In E.F. Byrne & J.C. Pitt (Eds.), Technological transformation: Contextual and conceptual implications (pp. 1–15). Philosophy and Technology, 5. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

Martin, B. (1994). Plagiarism: A misplaced emphasis. Journal of Information Ethics, 3(2), 36–47.

Martin, C.D. (1990). Professional codes of conduct and computer ethics education. Social Science Computer Review, 8(1), 96–108.

Marx, G.T. (1999). What's in a name? Some reflections on the sociology of anonymity. Information Society, 15(2), 99–113.

Mason, R.O. (1986). Four ethical issues in the information age. MIS Quarterly, 10(1), 4–12.

Mason, R., Mason, F., & Culnan, M. (1995). Ethics of information management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mason, R., Mason, F., & Culnan, M. (1995). Ethical thinking. In Ethics of information management (pp. 85–107). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mason, R., Mason, F., & Culnan, M. (1995). Information: It's special nature. In Ethics of information management (pp. 35–48). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McCloskey, H.J. (1980). Privacy and the right to privacy. Philosophy, 55 (211), pp. 17–38. Retrived March 20, 2008 from http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8191%28198001%2955%3A211%3C17%3APATRTP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1.

Mendina, T. (Ed.). (2000). EEI21—Memphis. Proceedings of the 4th Ethics of Electronic Information in the 21st Century Symposium. International Information and Library Review, 32 (3–4), 251–257.

Metzger, M.J., Flanagan, A.J., Eyal, K., Lemus, D.R., & McCann, R.M. (2003). Credibility for the 21st century: Integrating perspectives on source, message, and media credibility in the contemporary media environment. Communication Yearbook (Vol. 27, pp. 293–335). Mahwah, NJ; London: Erlbaum.

Mika, J.J., & Shuman, B.A. (1988). Intellectual freedom; privacy and confidentiality; problem patrons; ethics. American Libraries, 19(4), 314–317.

Milevski, S.N. (1990). Federal policy-making and national security controls on information. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 132–144.

Miller, W. (2006). Enhancing students' academic honesty and respect for research. Library Issues, 26(5), 1–3.

Mintz, A.P. (Ed.). (1990, April). Information ethics: Concerns for librarianship and the information industry. Proceedings of the 27th annual Symposium of the Graduate Alumni and Faculty of the Rutgers School of Communication, Information, and Library Studies (Jana Varlejs, Series Ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Mintz, A.P. (1991). Ethics and the news librarian. Special Libraries, 82(1), 7–11.

Mitcham, C. (1985). Computer ethos, computer ethics. In P.T. Durbin (Ed.), Research in philosophy & technology (Vol. 8, pp. 267–280). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Mitcham, C. (1995). Computers, information and ethics: A review of issues and literature. Science and Engineering Ethics, 1(2), 113–132.

Mitchell, W.J. (1992). The reconfigured eye. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Molz, R.K. (1990). Censorship: Current issues in American libraries. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 18–35.

Moor, J. (1985). What is computer ethics? Metaphilosophy, 16, 266–275.

Moor, J.H. (1990). The ethics of privacy protection. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 69–82.

Moore, A.D. (Ed.). (2005). Information ethics: Privacy, property, and power. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Moore, A.D. (2004). Intellectual property and information control: Philosophic foundations and contemporary issues. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

Moran, G. (1992). Academic librarians and mediation in controversial scholarly communication. The Reference Librarian, 17, 183–196.

Moran, G., & Mallory, M. (1991). Some ethical considerations regarding scholarly communication. In R. Hauptman (Ed.), Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 338–356.

Morris, A.B. (1992). Ethics and information system practice. In R.M. Aiken (Ed.), Proceedings of the IFIP 12th World Computer Congress on Education and Society—Information Processing (Vol. 2). IFIP Transactions (Vol. A-13, pp. 363–369). Amsterdam: North-Holland.

Mosco, V. (1989). The pay-per society: Computers and communication in the information age: Essays in critical theory and public policy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Muthuchidambaram, S. (1988). Information technology, citizens' rights, and personnel administration. In P.T. Durbin (Ed.), Technology and contemporary life. Philosophy and technology (Vol. 4, pp. 193–215). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Reidel.

Nash, R.F. (1989). The rights of nature: A history of environmental ethics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

National Coalition Against Censorship. (1986). Books on trial: A survey of recent cases. New York: NCAC.

Naurin, D. (2003). Does publicity purify politics? Journal of Information Ethics, 12(1), 21–33.

A new era in computation. (1992). Daedalus [Special issue], 121(1).

Nissenbaum, H. (2001). Can trust be secured online? A theoretical perspective. (Reprinted as: Securing trust online: Wisdom or oxymoron?), Boston University Law Review, 81(3), 635–664.

Nissenbaum, H. (2001, June). Ethics and information technology: The place of human and social values in the information society. UNESCO World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology (COMEST). First Meeting of the Sub-Commission on the Ethics of the Information Society (pp. 86–92). Paris: UNESCO.

O'Boyle, E.J. (2002). An ethical decision-making process for computing professionals. Ethics and Information Technology, 4(4), 267–277.

O'Harrow, R. Jr. (2005). No place to hide. In R. O'Harrow Jr. (Ed.), No place to hide (pp. 281–300). New York: Free Press.

Orahood, D.W., & van Gigch, J.P. (1991). The morality of system design. In J.P. van Gigch (Ed.), System design modeling and metamodeling (pp. 399–421). New York: Plenum Press.

Orwant, C.J. (1991). Computer ethics—Part of computer science! Computers & Society, 21(2–4), 40–45.

Osburn, C.B. (1990). Impact of collection management practices on intellectual freedom. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 168–182.

Oz, E. (1993). Ethical standards for computer professionals. Journal of Business Ethics, 12(9), 709–718.

Oz, E. (1994). Ethics for the information age. Dubuque, IA: Brown Communications.

Padgett, L. (2006). Anchors away. Information Today, 23(1), 42–43.

Palmquist, R. (1992). The impact of information technology on the individual. In M.E. Williams (Ed.), Annual review of information science and technology (Vol. 27, pp. 3–42). Medford, NJ: Learned Information for the American Society for Information Science.

Panteli, A., Stack, J., & Ramsay, H. (1999). Gender and professional ethics in the IT industry. Journal of Business Ethics, 22(1), 51–61.

Parker, D.B. (1989). Ethical conflicts in information and computer science, technology, and business. New York: Wiley.

Parker, L.S. (1994). Bioethics for human geneticists: Models for reasoning and methods. American Journal of Human Genetics, 54(1), 137–147.

Patsuris, P. (2002, October 4). Can integrity be taught? Retrieved October 9, 2006, from http://www.forbes.com/2002/10/04/1004virtue_print.html

Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2003). The miniature guide to understanding the foundations of ethical reasoning. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking.

Payne, S.L. (2000). Challenges for research ethics and moral knowledge construction in the applied social sciences. Journal of Business Ethics, 26(4), 307–318.

Peterson, K.G. (1983). Ethics in academic librarianship: The need for values. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 9(3), 132–137.

Peterson, L. (1988). Teaching academic integrity: Opportunities in bibliographic instruction. Research Strategies, 6(4), 168–176.

Pfaffenberger, B. (1990). Democratizing information: Online databases and the rise of end-user searching. Boston, MA: Hall.

Pool, I. (1983). Technologies of freedom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Postman, N. (1999). Narratives. In N. Postman (Ed.), Building a bridge to the 18th century: How the past can improve our future (pp. 99–115). New York: Knopf.

Poynder, R. (2003). Enclosing the digital commons. Information Today, 20(5), 37–38.

Preer, J. (1991). Special ethics for special librarians? Special Libraries, 82(1), 12–18.

Proceedings of the African Information Ethics Conference: Ethical challenges in the Information Age: The joy of sharing knowledge. (2007). International Review of Information Ethics. Available at: http://www.i-r-i-e.net/issue7.htm

Prentice, A.E. (1984). Professional ethics. Catholic Library World, 56(4), 180–183.

Puckett, M., Ashley, P., & Craig, J. (1991). Issues in information malpractice. Medical Reference Services Quarterly, 10(2), 33–46.

Quigley, M. (Ed.). (2005). Information security and ethics: Social and organizational issues. Hershey, PA: IRM Press.

Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Reich, W.T. (Ed.). (1978). Encyclopedia of bioethics (Vols. 1–4). New York: Free Press.

Reich, W.T. (Ed.). (1995). Encyclopedia of bioethics (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Richtel, M. (2002, July 14). Now, the personal ethical assistant. The New York Times, Section 3, p. 10.

Rockenbach, B., & Mendina, T. (Eds.). (2003). Ethics and electronic information: A Festschrift for Stephen Almagno. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Rockenbach, B. (1998). Information ethics at the University of Pittsburgh. Journal of Information Ethics, 7(2), 13–18.

Rodin, J. (2003). Incivility and public discourse. In J. Rodin & S.P. Steinberg (Eds.), Public discourse in America: Conversation and community in the twenty-first century (pp. 1–23). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Rogers, D. (1988). Banned! Censorship in the school. New York: Messner/

Simon and Schuster.

Rogerson, S. Retrieved October 10, 2006, from http://www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk

Rosen, J. (2000, April 30). The eroded self. The New York Times, pp. 46–69.

Rothstein, E. (2002, July 13). Moral relativity is a hot topic? True. Absolutely. The New York Times, p. B7.

Rothstein, J.A. (1993). Ethics and the role of the medical librarian: Health care information and the new consumer. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association, 81(3), 253–258.

Rothstein, S. (1989). Where does it hurt? Identifying the real concerns in the ethics of reference service. (Original work published 1982). The Reference Librarian, 25–26, 307–320.

Rubenstein, E. (Ed.). (1984). Beyond 1984: Technology and the individual [Special issue]. IEEE Spectrum, 21(6).

Rubin, R.R., & Froehlich, T.J. (1996). Ethical aspects of library and information science. In A. Kent (Ed.), Encyclopedia of library and information science (Vol. 58, Suppl. 21, pp. 33–52). New York: Dekker.

Rudinow, J., & Graybosch, A. (Eds.). (2002). Ethics and values in the information age. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Ryan, K., & Ellrod, F.E. (1983). Moral education in the United States: An overview. Communio, 1(1), 80–91.

Schmidmaier, D. (1985). Library ethics and the special library network in science and technology. INSPEL, 19(2), 106–119.

Schmidt, C.J. (1989). Rights for users of information: Conflicts and balances among privacy, professional ethics, law, national security. In F. Simora (Ed.), The Bowker annual library and book trade almanac 1989–1990 (34th ed., pp. 83–90). New York: Bowker.

Schultz, R.A. (2006). Contemporary issues in ethics and information technology. Hershey, PA: IRM Press.

Schweinsburg, J.D. (1995). Professional awareness of the ethics of selection. Journal of Information Ethics, 4(2), 33–42.

Serebnick, J. (1991). Identifying unethical practices in journal publishing. In R. Hauptman (Ed.), Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 357–372.

Severson, R.W. (1997). The principles of information ethics. Armonk, NY: Sharpe.

Shachaf, P. (2005). A global perspective on library association codes of ethics. Library and Information Science Research, 27(4), 513–533. NY.

Shaver, D.B., Hewison, N.S., & Wykoff, L.W. (1985). Ethics for online intermediaries. Special Libraries, 76(4), 238–245.

Shaw, T.R. (2003). The moral intensity of privacy: An empirical study of webmasters' attitudes. Journal of Business Ethics, 46(4), 301–318.

Sheinin, R. (1993). Academic freedom and integrity and ethics in publishing. Scholarly Publishing, 24(4), 232–247.

Shields, G.R. (1991). The FBI creates an awareness of librarian ethics: An opinionated historical review. In F.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian. Allerton Park Institute, 31 (pp. 19–30). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Shields, G.R. (1992). Censorship, social violence, and librarian ethics: A review article. The Library Quarterly, 62(2), 217–222.

Shumway, F.M. (1988). The ethics of archival research. In J.C. Larsen (Ed.), Researcher's guide to archives and regional history sources (pp. 34–39). North Haven, CT: Library Professional Publication.

Siponen, M.T., & Vartiainen, T. (2005). Attitudes to and factors affecting unauthorized copying of computer software in Finland. Behaviour and Information Technology, 24(4), 249–257.

Smith, M.M. (1992). Infoethics for leaders: Models of moral agency in the information environment. In B. Moran (Ed.), Library trends (Leadership), 40(3), 553–570.

Smith, M.M. (1993). Educating for information ethics: Assumptions and definitions. Journal of Information Ethics, 2(1), 5–9.

Smith, M.M. (Guest Ed.). (1993). Information ethics [Special issue]. North Carolina Libraries, 51(1), 4–64.

Smith, M.M. (1993). Educating for information ethics: Information ethics 101: Sources for faculty and students. Journal of Information Ethics, 2(2), 5–10.

Smith, M.M. (1996). Information ethics: An hermeneutical analysis of an emerging field of applied ethics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. ProQuest Digital Dissertations (AAT 9631983).

Smith, M.M. (1997). Information ethics. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 32, 339–366.

Smith, M.M. (2001). Global information justice: Rights, responsibilities, and caring connections. Library Trends, 49(3), 519–537.

Smith, M.M. (2001). Information ethics. In F. Lynden (Ed.), Advances in librarianship (Vol. 25). New York: Academic Press.

Society of American Archivists (2005). A code of ethics for archivists with commentary. Retrieved October 11, 2006, from http://www.archivists.org/governance/handbook/app_ethics.asp

Society of Professional Journalists (1996). Code of ethics. Retrieved October 11, 2006, from http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp

Solomon, R.C. (2002). Are the Three Stooges funny? Soitainly! In J. Rudinow & A. Graybosch (Eds.), Ethics and values in the Information Age (pp. 177–186). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Solove, D.J. (2005). The digital person: Technology and privacy in the information age. New York: New York University Press.

Spallone, P. (1995). Ethical aspects of information technology. Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Special Libraries Association. (1992). Malpractice issues in librarianship (SLA information kit). Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association.

Spinello, R.A. (1995). Frameworks for ethical analysis. In R.A. Spinello (Ed.), Ethical aspects of information technology (pp. 14–46). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Spinello, R.A. (2002). Cyber-ethics: Morality and law in cyberspace. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Spinello, R.A., & Tavani, H.T. (Eds.). (2001). Readings in cyberethics. Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Squires, B.P. (1993). The ethical responsibilities of the editor. Scholarly Publishing, 24, 214–217.

Stager, S.F. (1992). Computer ethics violations: More questions than answers. EDUCOM Review, 27(4), 22–28.

Stahl, B.C. (2004). Responsibility for information assurance and privacy: A problem of individual ethics? Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, 16(3), 59–77.

Stahl, W.M. (1986). Automation and ethics: A view from the trenches. Library Hi-Tech, 4(4), 53–57.

St. Clair, G., Harriston, V., & Pellizzi, T.A. (2003). Toward world-class knowledge services: Emerging trends in specialized research libraries. Information Outlook, 7(6), 10–18.

Sterling, B. (Ed.). (1988). Mirrorshades: The cyberpunk anthology. New York: Ace Books.

Sterling, B. (1989). Islands in the net. New York: Ace Books.

Stevens, N.D. (1991). Ethical considerations in representation or did dui do it? In R. Hauptman (Ed.), Library trends (Ethics and the dissemination of information), 40(2), 303–320.

St. Onge, K.R. (1994). Plagiarism: For the accusers and the accused. Journal of Information Ethics, 3(2), 8–24.

Stover, M. (1987). Confidentiality and privacy in reference service. RQ, 27(2), 240–244.

Strauch, K., & Strauch, B. (Eds.). (1990). Legal and ethical issues in acquisitions. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.

Streatfield, D. (June, 2005). Ethical research methods? Information Research Watch International, p. 4.

Strickland, L.S., & Hunt, L.E. (2005). Technology, security and individual privacy: New tools, new threats and new public perceptions. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 56(3), 221–244.

Strife, M.L. (1994). Special libraries and diversity: Ethical considerations. The Reference Librarian, 45–46, 213–219.

Stroyan, S. (1992). ALA code of ethics: Is it time for revision? Library Administration and Management, 6(2), 58–59.

Sturges, P. (2004). Corruption, transparency and a role for ict? International Journal of Information Ethics, 2. Retrieved October 12, 2006, from http://container.zkm.de/ijie/ijie/no002/ijie_002_25_sturges.pdf

Sturges, P. (2005). Is privacy dead? Library + Information Update, 4(11), 16.

Sturges, P., Davies, E., Dearnley, J., Iliffe, U., Oppenheim, C., & Hardy, R. (2003). User privacy in the digital library environment: An investigation of policies and preparedness. Library Management, 24(1), 44–50.

Suitt, H. (2003). A blogger in their midst. Harvard Business Review, 81(9), 30–40.

Swan, J.C. (1988). Helpful librarians and hurtful books. Catholic Library World, 59(6), 271–274.

Szofran, N.C. (1994). Internet etiquette and ethics. Computers in Libraries, 14(1), 66–69.

Tavani, H.T. (2003). Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Tavani, H.T. (Ed.). (2006). Ethics, computing and genomics. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Tenopir, C. (1992). Ethics for online educators. Journal of Information Ethics, 1, 32–40.

Thelwall, M., & Vaughan, L. (2004). A fair history of the Web? Examining country balance in the Internet archive. Library and Information Science Research, 26(2), 162–175.

Thompson, B.E.R. (1994). Professional ethics and the problem of U.S. GPO document withdrawal and destruction requests. Journal of Government Information, 21(4), 297–304.

Thorseth, M., & Ess, C. (Eds.). (ca. 2005). Technology in a multicultural and global society (pp. 91–114). NTNU Publication Series No. 6. Trondheim, Norway: Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

Tirimanne, N. (2001). The ethics of information provision: A case for refugees. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(2), 67–73.

Trippe, B. (2003). First, do no harm. EContent, 26(3), 38–42.

Tshwane Declaration on Information Ethics in Africa. (2007, February 7). Adopted by the participants of the African Information Ethics Conference: Ethical Challenges in the Information Age, Tshwane (Pretoria), South Africa. Retrieved March 3, 2007, from http://hosting.zkm.de/icie/

TshwaneDeclaration

Tunick, M. (2001). Does privacy undermine community? Journal of Value Inquiry, 36(4), 517–534.

Turkle, S. (2000). Who am we? In R.M. Baird, R.M. Ramsower, & S.E. Rosenbaum (Eds.), Cyberethics: Social and moral issues in the computer age (pp. 129–141). Amherst, NY: Prometheus.

Turkle, S. (2004). How computers change the way we think. Chronicle of Higher Education, 50(21), 26–28.

Turkle, S. (2004). Our split screens. In A. Feenberg & D. Barney (Eds.), Community in the digital age: Philosophy and practice (pp. 101–117). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

UNESCO. INFOethics: UNESCO-CI. Retrieved October 14, 2006, from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1654&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

United Nations General Assembly. (1998). Fiftieth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (text of original declaration). Retrieved October 14, 2006, from http://www.un.org/rights/50/decla.htm

Van Buren, C. (2001). Teaching hackers: School computing culture and the future of cyber-rights. Journal of Information Ethics, 10(1), 51–72.

Vaux, K. (Ed.). (1970). Who shall live? Medicine, technology, ethics. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

Vedder, A. (2001). The internet: Moral benefits, drawbacks and innovations. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 1–10). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Vedder, A. (2001). Misinformation through the Internet: Epistemology and ethics. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 125–132). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Wachbroit, R. (2001). Reliance and reliability: The problem of information on the Internet. In A. Vedder (Ed.), Ethics and the Internet (pp. 133–142). Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia.

Walker, G. (Ed.). (1992). The information environment: A reader. New York: Hall.

Wallace, D.A. (2002). Implausible deniability: The politics of documents in the Iran-Contra affair and its investigations. In R.J. Cox & D.A. Wallace (Eds.), Archives and the public good: Accountability and records in modern society (pp. 91–114). Westport, CT: Quorum.

Walton, R.E. (1987). Social choice in the development of advanced information technology. In A.P. Iannone (Ed.), Contemporary moral controversies in technology (pp. 112–118). New York: Oxford University Press.

Ward, D.V. (1990). Philosophical issues in censorship and intellectual freedom. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 83–91.

Watson, R.T., & Pitt, L.F. (1993). Computing ethics—Beliefs and behavior. International Journal of Information Management, 13(4), 287–298.

Watts, T.J. (1987). Ethics of information science. Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies.

Wayne, K.M. (1991). Access and privacy: Ethics in library, archival and visual resource collections. Art Documentation, 10, 88–89.

Weckert, J. (Ed.). (2005). Electronic monitoring in the workplace: Controversies and solutions. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

Weckert, J., & Adeney, D. (1997). Computer and information ethics. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

Weckert, J., & Ferguson, S. (1993). Ethics, reference librarians, and expert systems. Australian Library Journal, 42, 172–181.

Weissbord, D., & McGreal, P. (1990). Moral autonomy, censorship, and the enlightened community. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 51–68.

Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason. San Francisco: Freeman.

Wengert, R.G. (1991). Some ethical questions for consideration and discussion. In F.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian. Allerton Park Institute, 31 (pp. 115–118). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

Wengert, R.G. (2001). Some ethical aspects of being an information professional. Library Trends, 49(3), 486–509.

Wessells, M.B. (1991). Feeding the hand that bites you. In F.W. Lancaster (Ed.), Ethics and the librarian. Allerton Park Institute, 31 (pp. 63–71). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library and Information Science.

White, H.S. (1989). Librarians and the awakening from innocence: A collection of papers. Boston. MA: Hall.

White, H.S. (1992). Ethical dilemmas in libraries: A collection of case studies. New York: Hall.

Whorley, T. (2002). The Tuskegee syphilis study and the politics of memory. In R.J. Cox & D.A. Wallace (Eds.), Archives and the public good: Accountability and records in modern society (pp. 165–175). Westport, CT: Quorum.

Wiberg, M. (Ed.). (2005). The interaction society: Practice, theories, and supportive technologies. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

Wiener, N. (1950). The human use of human beings: Cybernetics and society. New York: Houghton and Mifflin.

Wiener, P.B. (1987). Mad bombers and ethical librarians: A dialogue with Robert Hauptman and John Swan. Catholic Library World, 58, 161–163.

Wilson, P. (1990). Copyright, derivative rights, and the first amendment. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 92–110.

Winner, L. (1986). The whale and the reactor: A search for limits in an age of high technology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Winner, L. (Ed.). (1992). Democracy in a technological society. Philosophy and technology, 9. Society for Philosophy and Technology. Boston, MA: Kluwer.

Winograd, T. (1992). Computers, ethics, and social responsibility. The CPSR Newsletter, 10(3), 17–27.

Winston, M. (2005). Ethical leadership: Professional challenges and the role of LIS education. New Library World, 106(5), 234–243.

Winter, M.F. (1988). The culture and control of expertise: Toward a sociological understanding of librarianship. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Wood, M.S. (1991). Public service ethics in health sciences libraries. Library Trends, 40, 244–257.

Woodward, D. (1984). Standards of confidentiality for information professionals. In B. Flood, (Ed.). Challenges to an information society. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science, 21 (pp. 44–47). White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry.

Woodward, D. (1989). Teaching ethics for information professionals. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 30(2), 132–135.

Woodward, D. (1990). A framework for deciding issues in ethics. In A. Mintz (Ed.), Information ethics: Concerns for librarianship and the information industry (pp. 4–13). Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Woodward, D. (1990). A framework for deciding issues in ethics. In D. Woodward (Ed.), Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 8–17.

Woodward, D. (Guest Ed.). (1990). Library trends (Intellectual freedom), 39(1–2), 1–185.

World Summit on the Information Society. Geneva 2003–Tusin 2005. Declaration of Principles. December 12, 2003. (WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/4-E)

Zwass, V. (1996). Ethical issues in information systems. In A. Kent & C.M. Hall (Eds.), Encyclopedia of library and information science (Vol. 57, Suppl. 20, pp. 175–195). New York: Dekker.