Reviews–A Peer Reviewed Forum
You have full text access to this OnlineOpen article
The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles
Article first published online: 24 FEB 2006
DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20697
Copyright © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Issue

Developmental Dynamics
Special Issue: Craniofacial Development Special Issue
Volume 235, Issue 5, pages 1194–1218, May 2006
Additional Information
How to Cite
Noden, D. M. and Francis-West, P. (2006), The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles. Dev. Dyn., 235: 1194–1218. doi: 10.1002/dvdy.20697
Publication History
- Issue published online: 19 APR 2006
- Article first published online: 24 FEB 2006
- Manuscript Accepted: 22 DEC 2005
Funded by
- NIH. Grant Numbers: DE06632, EY15917
- BBSRC
REFERENCES
- . 1927. The development of eye muscles of the chick. J Morphol Physiol 44: 29–87.Direct Link:
- , , , , , , , . 2003. Intrinsic, Hox-dependent cues determine the fate of skeletal muscle precursors. Dev Cell 5: 379–390.
- . 1951. Developmental correlations between the eye and associated structures. J Exp Zool 118: 71–99.Direct Link:
- , , . 1999. A molecular mechanism enabling continuous embryonic muscle growth: a balance between proliferation and differentiation. Development 126: 1041–1053.
- , . 1981. The influence of the metameric pattern in the mesoderm on migration of cranial neural crest cells in the chick embryo. Dev Biol 85: 385–402.
- . 1877. The development of the elasmobranchial fishes. J Anat Physiol 11: 674–706.
- , , , , . 2005. Hoxa2 knockdown in Xenopus results in hyoid to mandibular homeosis. Dev Dyn 234: 858–867.Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2003. Eph/Ephrin signaling regulates the mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition of the paraxial mesoderm during somite morphogenesis. Curr Biol 13: 1571–1582.
- , . 1999. Comparative study of shape, course, and disintegration of the rostral notochord in some vertebrates, especially humans. Anat Embryol Berl 200: 345–366.
- , , . 2004. Expression of zebrafish six1 during sensory organ development and myogenesis. Dev Dyn 230: 781–786.Direct Link:
- , . 1987. Tentacle development in Dermophis mexicanus Amphibia, Gymnophiona, with an hypothesis of tentacle origin. J Morphol 192: 101–111.Direct Link:
- . 1994. Thermogenesis in muscle. Ann Rev Physiol 56: 535–77.
- . 1986. On the spatial relationship between fibroblasts and myogenic cells during early development of skeletal muscles. Acta Anat Basel 125: 225–228.
- , . 2004. Normal and aberrant craniofacial myogenesis by grafted trunk somitic and segmental plate mesoderm. Development 131: 3967–3980.
- , 2000. Multiple tissue interactions and signal transduction pathways control somite myogenesis. Curr Top Dev Biol 48: 165–224.
- . 2005. Genetic and epigenetic control of skeletal muscle development. Ann Anat 187: 199–207.
- , , , 1996. Scatter factor/hepatocyte growth factor SF/HGF. induces emigration of myogenic cells at interlimb level in vivo. Dev Biol 179: 303–308.
- , . 2002. The superfast extraocular myosin MYH13. is localized to the innervation zone in both the global and orbital layers of rabbit extraocular muscle. J Exp Biol 205: 3133–3142.
- , , , , . 2005. Identification of a hypaxial somite enhancer element regulating Pax3 expression in migrating myoblasts and characterization of hypaxial muscle cre transgenic mice. Genesis 41: 202-209.Direct Link:
- , , , , . 1999. Dual role of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor scleraxis in mesoderm formation and chondrogenesis during mouse embryogenesis. Development 126: 4317–4329
- , , . 2003. Myf5 expression in somites and limb buds of mouse embryos is controlled by two distinct distal enhancer activities. Development 130: 3297–3307.
- , , , , , , , , . 2003. The formation of skeletal muscle: from somite to limb. J Anat 202: 59–68.Direct Link:
- . 2000. Hox genes and the global patterning of somitic mesoderm. Curr Top Dev Biol 47: 155–181.
- , . 2003. A new view of patterning domains in the vertebrate mesoderm. Dev Cell 4: 159–165.
- , . 2002. The neuroanatomical basis of oculomotor disorders: the dual motor control of extraocular muscles and its possible role in proprioception. Curr Opin Neurol 15: 35–43.
- . 1958. Comparative optic development in Astyanax mexicanus and two of its blind cave derivatives. Bull Mus Nat Hist 115: 75–112
- , , , , , , . 1992. Mox-1 and Mox-2 define a novel homeobox gene subfamily and are differentially expressed during early mesodermal patterning in mouse embryos. Development 116: 1123–1136.
- , , , . 2005. Hox genes specify vertebral types in the presomitic mesoderm. Genes Dev 19: 2116–2121.
- , , , . 2001. A BAC transgenic analysis of the Mrf4/Myf5 locus reveals interdigitated elements that control activation and maintenance of gene expression during muscle development. Development 128: 1859–1868.
- , , , , , , , , . 2000. The branchial arches and HGF are growth-promoting and chemoattractant for cranial motor axons. Development 127: 1751–1766.
- , , , , , . 2004. Developmental origins and evolution of jaws: new interpretation of “maxillary” and “mandibular.” Dev Biol 276: 225–236.
- , , , . 2002. Analysis of spatial and temporal gene expression patterns in blastula and gastrula stage chick embryos. Dev Biol 245: 187–199.
- , , . 2005. Protein kinase A signalling via CREB controls myogenesis induced by Wnt proteins. Nature 433: 317–22.
- , , . 2001. Two upstream enhancers collaborate to regulate the spatial patterning and timing of MyoD transcription during mouse development. Dev Dyn 221: 274–288.Direct Link:
- , , , , . 1992. Mapping of myogenin transcription during embryogenesis using transgenes linked to the myogenin control region. J Cell Biol 119: 1649–1656.
- , , , , , . 2004. Conserved and muscle-group-specific gene expression patterns shape postnatal development of the novel extraocular muscle phenotype. Physiol Genomics 18: 184–195.
- , . 1995. Early stages of chick somite development. Anat Embryol 191: 381–396.
- , , 1989. Autonomous death of amphibian Xenopus laevis cranial myotomes. J Exp Zool. 251: 290–299.Direct Link:
- . 2001. Molecular genetics of cranial nerve development in mouse. Nat Rev Neurosci 2: 611–623.
- , , , . 2004. Specification of vertebral identity is coupled to Notch signaling and the segmentation clock. Development 131: 1221–1233.
- , , . 1996. How is myogenesis initiated in the embryo? Trends Genet 12: 218–223.
- , , . 1992. The developmental fate of the cephalic mesoderm in quail-chick chimeras. Development 114: 1–15.
- , , . 1993. The triple origin of skull in higher vertebrates: a study in quail-chick chimeras. Development 117: 409–429.
- , , . 2001. Expression pattern of Brachyury in the embryo of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Dev Genes Evol 211: 617–619.
- , , . 2005. Neural crest derivatives in ocular and periocular structures. Int J Dev Biol 49: 161–171.
- , , , , , . 1999. Differential patterning of ventral midline cells by axial mesoderm is regulated by BMP7 and chordin. Development 126: 397–408.
- , . 2000. Paraxis is expressed in myoblasts during their migration and proliferation in the chick limb bud. Mech Dev 96: 247–251.
- . 2002. The orbital pulley system: a revolution in concepts of orbital anatomy. Ann NY Acad Sci 956: 17–32.Direct Link:
- , . 2005. Developmental regulation of the Hox genes during axial morphogenesis in the mouse. Development 132: 2931–2942.
- , , , 1998. Specification of the hypaxial musculature. Development 125: 2235–2249.
- , , , , , , , , . 1999. The role of SF/HGF and c-Met in the development of skeletal muscle. Development 126: 1621–1629.
- , , , , . 1997. BMP-4 acts as a morphogen in dorsoventral mesoderm patterning in Xenopus. Development 124: 2325–2334.
- , . 2004. Coupling segmentation to axis formation. Development 131: 5783–5793.
- , 2005. Quail-duck chimeras reveal spatiotemporal plasticity in molecular and histogenic programs of cranial feather development. Development 132: 1499–1509.
- , . 1996. The development of vision in the zebrafish Danio rerio. Dev Biol 180: 646–663.
- . 1935. The cranial muscles of vertebrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- , . 2004. Embryonic origins of skeletal muscles. In: EngelAG, Franzini-ArmstrongC, editors. Myology, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill. p 3–44.
- , . 1999. cSix4, a member of the six gene family of transcription factors, is expressed during placode and somite development. Mech Dev 85: 161–165.
- , . 2005. Expression of the homeobox gene Pitx2 in neural crest is required for optic stalk and ocular anterior segment development. Hum Mol Genet 14: 3347–3359.
- , . 2006. Spatial relations between avian craniofacial neural crest and paraxial mesoderm cells. Dev Dyn.Direct Link:
- , , . 1997. A role for WNT proteins in induction of dermomyotome. Dev Biol 191: 160–165.
- , , , , , , . 1999. A paraxial exclusion zone creates patterned cranial neural crest cell outgrowth adjacent to rhombomeres 3 and 5. Dev Biol 213: 70–84.
- , . 2004. Redefining the head-trunk interface for the neural crest. Dev Biol 269: 70–80.
- , , . 2003. Craniofacial development: the tissue and molecular interactions that control development of the head. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol 169: 1-138.
- , , , , . 2001. Evidence for medial/lateral specification and positional information within the presomitic mesoderm. Development 128: 5139–5147.
- , , , . 1996. The metameric pattern of the head - does it exist? Anat Embryol 193: 73–80.
- , , , . 2005. Fate maps of neural crest and mesoderm in the mammalian eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46: 4200–4208.
- , , , , , , . 2004. A proliferative role for Wnt-3a in chick somites. Dev Biol 269: 489–504.
- , . 1983. Neural crest and the origin of vertebrates: A new head. Science 220: 268–274.
- , , , , , . 2001. Tbx1, a DeGeorge syndrome candidate, is regulated by sonic hedgehog during pharyngeal arch development. Dev Biol 235: 62–73.
- . 1967. Development of the facial muscles in man. Am J Anat 120: 357–376.Direct Link:
- , , , , , , , , , . 2000. DNA dendrimers localize MyoD mRNA in presomitic tissues of the chick embryo. J Cell Biol 149: 825–834.
- . 1947. Origin and development of the extrinsic ocular muscles in the domestic cat. J Morph 81: 151–194.Direct Link:
- . 1952. The origin and development of the head cavities in the human embryo. J Morph 90: 149–188.Direct Link:
- . 1957. The origin and development of the human extrinsic ocular muscles. Contrib Embryol Carnegie Inst 36: 61–78.
- , . 1993. Conservation of neuroepithelial and mesodermal segments in the embryonic vertebrate head. Acta Anat Basel 148: 110–123.
- , , , , , 1995. Embryonic activation of the MyoD gene is regulated by a highly conserved distal control element. Development 121: 637–649.
- . 1930. Studies on the structure and development of vertebrates. London: Macmillan.
- , , , , , , , . 2005. Six1 and Six4 homeoproteins are required for Pax3 and Mrf expression during myogenesis in the mouse embryo. Development 132: 2235–2249.
- , . 1991. Muscle morphogenesis in the absence of myogenic cells. Anat Embryol (Berl) 183: 67–70.
- , . 2005. Cranial neural crest contributes to the bony skull vault in adult Xenopus laevis: Insights from cell labeling studies. J Exp Zool 304: 169–176Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2000. Lbx1 is required for muscle precursor migration along a lateral pathway into the limb. Development 127: 413–424.
- , , , , , , 2002. Myf5 is a direct target of long-range Shh signaling and Gli regulation for muscle specification. Genes Dev 16: 114–126.
- , . 1998. A distinct developmental programme for the cranial paraxial mesoderm in the chick embryo. Development 125: 3461–3472.
- , , , , , , , , , , . 2003. Analysis of a key regulatory region upstream of the Myf5 gene reveals multiple phases of myogenesis, orchestrated at each site by a combination of elements dispersed throughout the locus. Development 130: 3415–3426.
- . 2005. Consideration of the neural crest and its skeletal derivatives in the context of novelty/innovation. J Exp Zool 304: 1–10.Direct Link:
- . 1965. Origin of hypoglossal muscles in the chick embryo. Anat Rec 151: 547–557.Direct Link:
- , . 1995. Myogenic cell migration from somites is induced by tissue contact with medial region of the presumptive limb mesoderm in chick embryos. Development 121: 661–669.
- . 1972. A radioautographic analysis of the migration and fate of cells derived from the occipital somites in the chick embryo with specific reference to the development of the hypoglossal musculature. J Embryol Exp Morphol 24: 455–466.
- , . 2003. Cranial skeletal biology. Nature 423: 326–331.
- , , , , . 2005. Interactions between muscle fibers and segment boundaries in zebrafish. Dev Biol (in press).
- , 2001. Analysis of vertebrate structure. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
- , . 1971. Collagenase. Its effectiveness as a dispersing agent for embryonic chick thyroid and heart. Exp Cell Res 65: 246–249.
- , , , , , . 1997. Noggin acts downstream of Wnt and Sonic Hedgehog to antagonize BMP4 in avian somite patterning. Development 124: 4605–4614.
- , , , , , , , . 2001. Notch signalling acts in postmitotic avian myogenic cells to control MyoD activation. Development 128: 107–116.
- . 2002. Superfast or masticatory myosin and the evolution of jaw-closing muscles of vertebrates. J Exp Biol 205: 2203–2210.
- , , , , , , , , . 2001. Characterization and developmental expression of Amphioxus homolog of Notch AmphiNotch: Evolutionary conservation of multiple expression domains in Amphioxus and vertebrates. Dev Biol 232: 493–507.
- , , , . 1997. The fate of the first avian somite. Anat Embryol Berl 195: 435–449.
- , , , , . 1999. Origin and development of the avian tongue muscles. Anat Embryol Berl 200: 137–152.
- , , , , . 2001. Molecular and cellular analysis of embryonic avian tongue development. Anat Embryol Berl 204: 179–187.
- , , , . 2002. Establishing the trochlear motor axon trajectory: role of the isthmic organizer and Fgf8. Development 129: 5389–5398.
- , , . 1996. Loss of fibroblast growth factor receptors is necessary for terminal differentiation of embryonic limb muscle. Development 122: 291–300.
- , , , , , , , . 2005. Microarray analysis detects differentially expressed genes in the pharyngeal region of mice lacking Tbx1. Dev Biol 285: 554–569.
- . 2002. Evolution of the structure and function of the vertebrate tongue. J Anat 201: 1–13.Direct Link:
- , , . 2001. Mechanisms and molecules in motor neuron specification and axon pathfinding. Bioessays 23: 582–595.Direct Link:
- , , , . 1984. Ontogeny of avian extrinsic ocular muscles. I. A light and electron-microscopic study. Cell Tissue Res 237: 549–557.
- , . 1984. Morphogenesis of the head of a newt: mesodermal segments, neuromeres, and distribution of neural crest. Dev Biol 106: 181–193.
- , , , , . 2002. Tissue origins and interactions in the mammalian skull vault. Dev Biol 241: 106–116.
- 1980. Basic structure and evolution of vertebrates, Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press.
- . 1913. The development of the prootic head somites and eye muscles in chelydra serpentina. Am J Anat 14: 119–185.Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2001. The anterior/posterior polarity of somites is disrupted in paraxis-deficient mice. Dev Biol 229: 176–187.
- . 2003. Molecular control of pronephric development: an overview. In: VizePD, WoolfAS, BardJBL, editors. The kidney: from normal development to congenital disease. London: Academic Press. p 93–118.
- , , . 2002. Onset of the segmentation clock in the chick embryo: evidence for oscillations in the somite precursors in the primitive streak. Development 129: 1107–1117.
- . 2003. Determination of retinal cell fates is affected in the absence of extraocular striated muscles. Dev Dyn 226: 478–490.Direct Link:
- , . 1989. Consequences of somite manipulation on the pattern of dorsal root ganglion development. Development 106: 85–93.
- , . 1999. Plasticity of axial identity among somites: cranial somites can generate vertebrae without expressing Hox genes appropriate to the trunk. Dev Biol 216: 507–520.
- . 1998. Muscle and tendon morphogenesis in the avian hind limb. Development 125: 4019–4032.
- , , . 2003. A Tcf4-positive mesodermal population provides a prepattern for vertebrate limb muscle patterning. Dev Cell 5: 937–944.
- , , . 2004 The del22q11.2 candidate gene Tbx1 regulates branchiomeric myogenesis. Hum Mol Genet 13: 2829–2840.
- , , , , . 2004. Genome-wide transcriptional profiles are consistent with functional specialization of the extraocular muscle layers. Invest Ophthalmol 45: 3055–3066.
- , . 2001. Myf-5 is transiently expressed in nonmuscle mesoderm and exhibits dynamic regional changes within the presegmented mesoderm and somites I–IV. Dev Biol 232: 77–90.
- . 1926. Branchiomerism and the theory of head segmentation. J Morphol Physiol 42: 83–109.Direct Link:
- , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 2002. Identification of a Wnt/Dvl/beta-Catenin → Pitx2 pathway mediating cell-type-specific proliferation during development. Cell 111: 673–685.
- , , , , , , , , , , , . 1999. Mouse Pitx2 deficiency leads to anomalies of the ventral body wall, heart, extra- and periocular mesoderm and right pulmonary isomerism. Development 126: 5749–5758.
- , . 1996. Rhombencephalic neural crest segmentation is preserved throughout craniofacial ontogeny. Development 122: 3229–3242.
- , , . 1994. The intracellular domain of mouse Notch: a constitutively activated repressor of myogenesis directed at the basic helix-loop-helix region of MyoD. Development 120: 2385–2396.
- , , , , , . 2001. Sonic hedgehog is a survival factor for hypaxial muscles during mouse development. Development 128: 743–52.
- , , , . 1999. Fine-scale transgenic mapping of the MyoD core enhancer: MyoD is regulated by distinct but overlapping mechanisms in myotomal and non-myotomal muscle lineages. Development 126: 1957–1965.
- . 2003. Evolutionary developmental biology and vertebrate head segmentation: a perspective from developmental constraint. Theory Biosci 122: 230–251.
- . 2004. Evolution of the vertebrate jaw: comparative embryology reveals the developmental factors behind the evolutionary novelty. J Anat 205: 335–347.Direct Link:
- . 2005. Craniofacial development and the evolution of the vertebrates: the old problems on a new background. Zool Sci 22: 1–19.
- , . 1990. Peripheral development of avian trigeminal nerves. Am J Anat 187: 65–80.Direct Link:
- , , . 1999. Developmental morphology of the cephalic mesoderm and re-evaluation of segmental theories of the vertebrate head: evidence from embyros of an agnathan vertebrate, Lampetra japonica. Dev Biol 210: 381–400.
- , . 2005. Evolution and developmental patterning of the vertebrate skeletal muscles: perspectives from the lamprey. Dev Dyn 234: 824–834.Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2003. Altered myogenesis in six 1-deficient mice. Development 130: 2239–2252.
- , , , , , , , , , , . 2000. Cloning and expression of the Wnt antagonists Sfrp-2 and Frzb during chick development. Dev Biol 218: 183–198.
- , , , , . 2005. FGF8 initiates inner ear induction in chick and mouse. Genes Dev 19: 603–613.
- , , . 1991. Clonal analysis of epiblast fate during germ layer formation in the mouse embryo. Development 113: 891–911.
- , , . 2004. Contribution of eye retraction to swallowing performance in the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens. J Exp Biol 207: 1361–1368.
- , , , , , , , , , , . 2003. Eya protein phosphatase activity regulates Six1-Dach-Eya transcriptional effects in mammalian organogenesis. Nature 426: 247–254.
- , , , , , , . 2003. T-box binding site mediates the dorsal activation of myf-5 in Xenopus gastrula embryos. Dev Dyn 226: 51–58.Direct Link:
- , , , . 2003. Intrinsic signals regulate the initial steps of myogenesis in vertebrates. Development 130: 4797–4807.
- , , . 2005. A balance of FGF, BMP and WNT signaling positions the future placode territory in the head. Development 132: 4051–4062.
- , , . 2001. Localization of cells of the prospective neural plate, heart and somites within the primitive streak and epiblast of avian embryos at intermediate primitive-streak stages. Cells Tissues Organs 169: 334–346.
- , . 1987. Neural crest cell migratory pathways in the trunk of the chick embryo. Dev Biol 121: 220–236.
- , , , . 1999. MyoR: a muscle-restricted basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that antagonizes the actions of MyoD. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 552–557.
- , , , , , , , , , . 2002. Control of facial muscle development by MyoR and capsulin. Science 298: 2378–2381.
- , , , , , . 1992. Homertic transformation of the occipital bones of the skull by ectopic expression of a homeobox gene. Nature 359: 835–814.
- , , . 1998. Migration of hypoglossal myoblast precursors. Dev Dyn 213: 349–358.Direct Link:
- , , , . 2000. Abnormalities of somite development in the absence of retinoic acid. Int J Dev Biol 44: 151–159.
- , , . 1997. Coordinate actions of BMPs, Wnts, Shh and noggin mediate patterning of dorsal somite. Development 124: 3955–3963.
- , , . 1999. In vivo regulation of somite differentiation and proliferation by sonic hedgehog. Dev Biol 214: 277–287.
- , . 1999. Myotube heterogeneity in developing chick craniofacial skeletal muscles. Dev Dyn 214: 178–194.Direct Link:
- , , , , . 2002. FGFR4 signaling is a necessary step in limb muscle differentiation. Development 129: 4559–4569.
- , , , , , , , . 2005. Neural crest origins of the neck and shoulder. Nature 436: 347–355.
- , . 1988. Ontogeny of architectural complexity in embryonic quail visceral arch muscles. Am J Anat 183: 277–293.Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2005. Gli2 and Gli3 have redundant and context-dependent function in skeletal muscle formation. Development 132: 345–357.
- , , , . 2003. The homeodomain protein Barx2 promotes myogenic differentiation and is regulated by myogenic regulatory factors. J Biol Chem 278: 8269–8278.
- . 1979. Development of the chick embryo mesoblast. Formation of the embryonic axis and establishment of the metameric pattern. Dev Biol 73: 24–45.
- . 1982. The development of segmentation in the cranial region of vertebrate embryos. Scan Electr Microsc 1982: 1269–1282.
- , 1984. Morphogenesis of the cranial segments and distribution of neural crest in the embryos of the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina. Dev Biol 102: 309–323.
- , . 1982. Metameric pattern development in the embryonic axis of the mouse. I. Differentiation of the cranial segments. Differentiation 21: 95–108.Direct Link:
- , , . 2001. Regulation of the muscle-specific expression and function of an ascidian T-box gene, As-T2. Development 128: 3717–3728.
- , , , , , , . 1991. Developmental patterns in the expression of Myf5, MyoD, myogenin, and MRF4 during myogenesis. New Biol 3: 592–600.
- , . 2002. Distinct regulatory cascades for head and trunk myogenesis. Development 129: 573–583.
- , , , , . 1995. Combinatorial signaling by Sonic hedgehog and Wnt family members induces myogenic bHLH gene expression in the somite. Genes Dev 9: 2911–2922.
- , . 2005. Isthmus organizer and regionalization of the mesencephalon and metencephalon. Int J Dev Biol 49: 231–235.
- . 1918. Neuromeres and metameres. J Morphol. 31: 293–315.Direct Link:
- , . 1946. Comparative anatomy. Philadelphia: Blakiston Co.
- . 2003. From physics to development: the evolution of morphogenetic mechanisms. In: MüllerGB, NewmanSA, editors. Origination of organismal form. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp 221–239.
- , . 1990. Generic physical mechanisms of morphogenesis and pattern formation. Development 110: 1–18.
- . 1978. The control of avian cephalic neural crest cytodifferentiation. I. Skeletal and connective tissues. Dev Biol 67: 296–312.
- . 1980. The migration and cytodifferentiation of cranial neural crest cells. In: PrattRM, ChristiansenR, editors. Current research trends in prenatal craniofacial development. New York: Elsevier North Holland, Inc. p 3–25.
- . 1983a. The role of the neural crest in patterning of avian cranial skeletal, connective, and muscle tissues. Dev Biol 96: 144–165.
- . 1983b. The embryonic origins of avian cephalic and cervical muscles and associated connective tissues. Am J Anat 168: 257–276.Direct Link:
- . 1986. Patterning of avian craniofacial muscles. Dev Biol 116: 347–356.
- . 1989. Embryonic origins and assembly of blood vessels. Am Rev Respir Dis 140: 1097–1103.
- . 1991. Origins and patterning of avian outflow tract endocardium. Development 111: 867–876.
- , , , 1999. Differentiation of avian craniofacial muscles: I. Patterns of early regulatory gene expression and myosin heavy chain synthesis. Dev Dyn 216: 96–112.Direct Link:
- , . 2005. Relations and interactions between cranial mesoderm and neural crest populations. J Anat 207: 575–601.Direct Link:
- . 1990. Ontogeny and phylogeny: a re-evaluation of conceptual relationships and some applications. Brain Behav Evol 36: 116–140.
- . 2005. The new head hypothesis revisited. J Exp Zool 304: 274–297.Direct Link:
- , . 1993. Cranial nerves of the coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae [Osteichthyes:Sarcopterygii: Actinistia], and comparisons with other craniata. Brain Behav Evol 42: 1–46.
- , , . 2003. The lateral somitic frontier: dorso-ventral aspects of anterio-posterior regionalization in avian embryos. Mech Dev 120: 227–240.
- , , , , , . 2001. Expression of the Dan gene during chicken embryonic development. Mech Dev 109: 363–365.
- . 2005. Second branchial arch lineages of the middle ear of wild-type and Hoxa2 mutant mice. Dev Dyn 234: 124–131.Direct Link:
- , . 1992. Two myogenic lineages within the developing somite. Development 114: 339–353.
- , , , , , , , , , , , . 2001. Six4, a putative myogenin gene regulator, is not essential for mouse embryonal development. Mol Cell Biol 21: 3343–3350.
- , , , . 1993. Mouse Wnt genes exhibit discrete domains of expression in the early embryonic CNS and limb buds. Development 119: 247–261.
- , , , , . 2003. Distinct modes of floor plate induction in the chick embryo. Development 130: 4809–4821.
- , , , . 2003. Scleraxis (Scx) directs lacZ expression in tendon of transgenic mice. Mech Dev 120: 1153–1163.
- . 1938. Morphogenesis of the cranial muscles of Amblystoma punctatum. J Morphol 63: 531–587.Direct Link:
- , . 2000. The endoderm plays an important role in patterning the segmented pharyngeal region in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Dev Biol 225: 339–356.
- , , . 2004. Diverse roles of eph receptors and ephrins in the regulation of cell migration and tissue assembly. Dev Cell 7: 465–480.
- , , , , , , , , . 2001. Extraocular muscle is defined by a fundamentally distinct gene expression profile. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 98: 12062–12067.
- . 2003. Vertebrate somitogenesis: a novel paradigm for animal segmentation? Int J Dev Biol 47: 597–603.
- , , , , , , , , , . 1996. Lateral and axial signals involved in avian somite patterning: a role for BMP4. Cell 84: 461–471.
- , , 2002. Myogenic regulatory factors and the specification of muscle progenitors in vertebrate embryos. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 18: 747–783.
- , , , , , , , . 2004. Analysis of Mlc-lacZ Met mutants highlights the essential function of Met for migratory precursors of hypaxial muscles and reveals a role for Met in the development of hyoid arch-derived facial muscles. Dev Dyn 231: 582–591Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2003. The transcriptional activator PAX3-FKHR rescues the defects of Pax3 mutant mice but induces a myogenic gain-of-function phenotype with ligand-independent activation of Met signaling in vivo. Genes Dev 17: 2950–2965.
- , , . 1998. Regulation of dorsal somitic cell fates: BMPs and Noggin control the timing and pattern of myogenic regulator expression. Genes Dev 12: 290–303.
- , . 2001. The midbrain-hindbrain boundary organizer. Curr Opin Neurobiol 11: 34–42.
- , , , . 2004. Bmp2 antagonizes sonic hedgehog-mediated proliferation of cerebellar granule neurones through Smad5 signalling. Development 131: 3159–3168.
- , , , , . 1998. Musculin, a murine basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor gene expressed in embryonic skeletal muscle. Mech Dev 76: 197–201.
- , , , . 2005. Retinoic acid down-regulates Tbx1 expression in vivo and in vitro. Dev Dyn 232: 928–938.Direct Link:
- , , , . 1994. Tissue and cellular patterning of the musculature in chick wings. Development 120: 1265–1276.
- , , , , , . 1999. The T-box genes Tbx4 and Tbx5 regulate limb outgrowth and identity. Nature 398: 814-818.
- . 1972. The vertebrate as a dual anomal-somatic and visceral. In: DobzhanskyT, HechtMK, SteereWC, editors. Evolutionary biology, Vol. 6. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. p 121–156.
- , , , , . 2003. Morphogenesis of blood vessels in avian cephalic muscles: spatial, temporal, and VEGF expression. Dev Dyn 227: 470–483.Direct Link:
- , , . 2004. The development of longitudinal variation of Myosin isoforms in the orbital fibers of extraocular muscles of rats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 45: 3067–3072.
- . 1986. Comparative morphology and evolution of cheek pouches in rodents. J Morphol 190: 27–41.Direct Link:
- , , , , . 1997. Dorsal hindbrain ablation results in rerouting of neural crest migration and changes in gene expression, but normal hyoid development. Development 124: 2729–2739.
- , , , . 2005. Temporal requirement of Hoxa2 in cranial neural crest skeletal morphogenesis. Development (in press).
- , , , , , , . 1989. Expression of two myogenic regulatory factors myogenin and MyoD1 during mouse embryogenesis. Nature 341: 303–307.
- , , . 2004. How does Fgf signaling from the isthmic organizer induce midbrain and cerebellum development? Dev Growth Differ 46: 487–494.Direct Link:
- , . 2002. Phylogenetic implications of the superfast myosin in extraocular muscles. J Exp Biol 205: 2189–2201.
- , . 1997. Musculoskeletal patterning in the pharyngeal segments of the zebrafish embryo. Development 124: 2945–2960.
- , , , , 2004. Dynamic expression of Lef/Tcf family members and beta-catenin during chick gastrulation, neurulation, and early limb development. Dev Dyn 229: 703–707.Direct Link:
- , , . 1992. Mesoderm movement and fate during avian gastrulation and neurulation. Dev Dyn 193: 235–248.
- , , , , , , , . 2001. Analysis of the tendon cell fate using Scleraxis, a specific marker for tendons and ligaments. Development 128: 3855–3866.
- , , . 1993. The avian prechordal head region: a morphological study. J Anat 183: 75–89.
- , , , . 2005. Zebrafish ftz-fla (nuclear receptor 5a2) functions in skeletal muscle organization. Dev Biol 286: 377–390.
- , . 1999. Chick Barx2b, a marker for myogenic cells also expressed in branchial arches and neural structures. Mech Dev 80: 203–206.
- , . 1993. Motor components of the trigeminal nerve and organization of the mandibular arch muscles in vertebrates. Phylogenetically conservative patterns and their ontogenetic basis. Acta Anat (Basel) 148: 139–149.
- . 2001. Epaxial-adaxial-hypaxial regionalisation of the vertebrate somite: evidence for a somitic organiser and a mirror-image duplication. Dev Genes Evol 211: 198–217.
- , , , . 2005. Bone morphogenetic proteins produced by cells within embryoid bodies inhibit ventral directed differentiation by Sonic Hedgehog. Cloning Stem Cells 7: 27–34.
- , , , , , . 2000. The expression of Myf5 in the developing mouse embryo is controlled by discrete and dispersed enhancers specific for particular populations of skeletal muscle precursors. Development 127: 3745–3757.
- , . 1993 The efferent system of cranial nerve nuclei: a comparative neuromorphological study. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol 128: 1–92.
- , , , , , , , . 1998. Differential activation of Myf5 and MyoD by different Wnts in explants of mouse paraxial mesoderm and the later activation of myogenesis in the absence of Myf5. Development 125: 4155–4162.
- , , , . 2000. Early events of somitogenesis in higher vertebrates: allocation of precursor cells during gastrulation and the organization of a meristic pattern in the paraxial mesoderm. Curr Top Dev Biol 47: 1–32.
- , , . 1987. Extraocular muscles in the microphthalmic rat. Anat Rec 218: 14–19.Direct Link:
- , , , , , . 2002. The early epaxial enhancer is essential for the initial expression of the skeletal muscle determination gene Myf5 but not for subsequent, multiple phases of somitic myogenesis. Development 129: 4571–4580.
- , , , , 1998. Sonic hedgehog is required for survival of both myogenic and chondrogenic somitic lineages. Development 125: 2019–2030.
- . 1993. Segmentation, the adult skull, and the problem of homology. In: HankenJ, HallBK, editors. The skull, Vol. 2: patterns of structural and systematic diversity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p 36–68.
- , . 2001. Hox genes, neural crest cells and branchial arch patterning. Curr Opin Cell Biol 13: 698–705.
- , . 1995. Cranial paraxial mesoderm and neural crest cells of the mouse embryo: co-distribution in the craniofacial mesenchyme but distinct segregation in branchial arches. Development. 121: 2569–2582.
- , , , . 2002. Signalling between the hindbrain and paraxial tissues dictates neural crest migration pathways. Development 129: 433–442.
- , , , , , , , . 2004. Antagonists of Wnt and BMP signaling promote the formation of vertebrate head muscle. Genes Develop 17: 3087–3099.
- , , , , , , , . 2004. Mutations of ephrin-B1 (EFNB1), a marker of tissue boundary formation, cause craniofrontonasal syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101: 8652–8657.
- . 1932. Influence of the eye on the growth of associated structures, studied by means of heteroplastic transplantation. J Exp Zool 61: 333–374.Direct Link:
- , , . 2000. Expression of lbx1 involved in the hypaxial musculature formation of the mouse embryo. J Exp Zool 286: 270–279.Direct Link:
- , , , . 2005. Expression of avian Groucho-related genes during embryonic development. Gene Exp Patterns 5: 817–823.
- , , , , , . 2005. CXCR4 and Gab1 cooperate to control the development of migrating muscle progenitor cells. Genes Dev 19: 2187–2198.
- , , , , , , . 2000. Development of chick axial mesoderm: specification of prechordal mesoderm by anterior endoderm-derived TGFbeta family signalling. Development 127: 2795–2809.
- , . 2005. Retinoic acid coordinates somitogenesis and left-right patterning in vertebrate embryos. Nature 435: 215–220.
- , . 1986. Origin and development of the cranial skeletal muscles. Biblthca Anat 29: 24–46.
- , , , . 1984. The extrinsic ocular muscles in birds are derived from the prechordal plate. Naturwissenschaften. 71: 379–380.
- , , , . 2000. Compartmentalization of the somite and myogenesis in chick embryos are influenced by Wnt expression. Dev Biol 228: 86–94.
- , . 1997. Periocular mesenchyme: neural crest and mesodermal contributions. In: JaegerAE, editor. Duane's foundations of clinical ophthalmology, Vol. 1. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- , , . 1994. Developmental relations between sixth nerve motor neurons and their targets in the chick embryo. Dev Dyn 201: 191–202.
- , , , , , , . 2001. Conotruncal myocardium arises from a secondary heart field. Development 128: 3179–3188.
- . 1953. The development of the head cavities in Ardea cinerea. Acta Anat 17: 240–252.
- , . 2002. Molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the generation of fiber diversity during myogenesis. Int Rev Cytol 216: 175–232
- , . 2000. Fate restriction in limb muscle precursor cells precedes high-level expression of MyoD family member genes. Development 127: 2523–2536.
- , , , . 2004. The forkhead genes, Foxc1 and Foxc2, regulate paraxial versus intermediate mesoderm cell fate. Dev Biol 271: 176–189.
- , , , , , , , , . 2003. Tbx1 is regulated by tissue-specific forkhead proteins through a common sonic hedgehog-responsive enhancer. Genes Dev 17: 269–281.
- . 2005. Embryonic and postnatal development of masticatory and tongue muscles. Cell Tissue Res 322: 183–189.
- , . 2001. Temporal and spatial effects of Sonic hedgehog signaling in chick eye morphogenesis. Dev Biol 233: 271–290.
- , , . 1996. The Spemann organizer signal noggin binds and inactivates bone morphogenetic protein 4. Cell 86: 599–606.

1097-0177/asset/DVDY_left.gif?v=1&s=b87335326ab8ecd1f573539da0b5fa6abef26532)