Exploring American History X through transformational learning

Abstract

Adult educators often struggle with finding creative ways to help students understand adult learning theories and applications of those theories in professional practice. Media analysis of popular culture can uncomplicate this task by engaging learners in understanding concepts, principles or theories (Baumgartner & Merriam, 1999). The purpose of this paper is to analyze the film American History X through the lens of transformational learning and to offer suggestions for using the film in an instructional setting where learning concepts are explored. Results suggest that although transformational learning is clearly evidenced in the main character's change process, other learning theories also intersect within the transformative process to provide a richer understanding of how learning, reflection and subsequent change occurs. The final section of the article includes scene selections and discussion questions to use in HRD or related instructional settings.

Understanding how and why adults learn is a core competency of human resource development (HRD) and adult education (AE) disciplines (Torraco, 2005; Yang, 2004). Although adult learning theory refers to a collection of several concepts and theories that explain how adults learn, it also describes a process that adults engage in long-term attitudinal, cognitive, and behavioral change (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Understanding and applying adult learning theories can be a challenging task, especially for HRD or AE students and practitioners that may not be as aware of implications of learning theory on instructional design, delivery, or assessment of adult education programs. Aside from reading about learning theory, a familiar and convenient way of exploring representations of learning concepts is through analyzing popular culture through different media forms. Media analysis is described here as conducting an in-depth study of a concept or theory found in a media form (e.g. books, films, graphic novels, television programs), identifying specific scenes in which these concepts or theories can be discussed, and suggesting ways in which media can be used in a learning environment (Marcus & Monaghan, 2009). Although there is a burgeoning genre of research examining the use of media to study individual and group differences through films (Rogers, 2002; Rosser, 2007), graphic novels (Browning, 2007; Keller, 2007; Mathis, 2007; Whitener, 2007), and television shows (Sudbrack & Trombley, 2007), many authors stop short of offering suggestions for teaching practice and this is especially lacking in the HRD discipline. This paper seeks to fill this gap by analyzing a form of visual media (film) using examples of select adult learning theories and providing suggestions for using the film in an instructional setting, especially classes where adult learning theory is examined. According to Champoux (1999), film scenes can offer a visual portrayal of abstract theories and concepts that may accelerate and expand adult learning opportunities.

The purpose of this paper is to identify and examine instances of learning theory as represented in the movie American History X. I chose this film because it provides a compelling narrative for examining how instances of cultural diversity, racial injustices, prejudices and stereotypes prompts change with the main characters. Thus, I wanted to explore the extent to which the main character's change process could be accurately modeled in the steps of Mezirow's (1991) transformational learning theory. I also remained open to the emergence of other learning theories to explain aspects of change within the movie, and found that several other learning theories intersected transformational learning to delve deeper into explaining how learning and change transpired. The following sections include a brief synopsis of the film, a description of transformational learning as the primary lens for examining the film, and my analysis process and discussion of specific scene selections from the film that represent transformational learning and other learning theories.

Synopsis: American History X

American History X focuses on the evolving racial and socio-cultural attitudes of two brothers belonging to a middle-class American family (Derek, and his younger brother Danny). Derek is portrayed as an extremely bright and charismatic student, but who has been influenced by his father's critical views against other races, particularly the African-American culture. After an African-American drug dealer kills his father, Derek is drawn into a white supremacist (neo-Nazi) group. There he commits several criminal acts and eventually serves three years for killing an African-American for carjacking. Derek experiences several pivotal events in prison including being victimized by a white-supremacist group and befriending an African-American inmate. He also interacts with people of different (social, racial, economic) cultures, and eventually decides to leave the white-supremacist group once freed from prison. In doing so, he seeks guidance from a former teacher (Dr. Sweeney), whom he asks for help and support to leave the neo-Nazi organization. Derek's process of disconnecting from the neo-Nazi group and ideology includes talking to his younger brother (Danny) about his awareness and appreciation of others' differences that he learned in prison. His sharing appears to prompt a change in Danny (who had modeled his own life like Derek's pre-incarceration racist beliefs), and he begins to realize the negative side of holding racial and other prejudicial beliefs. Ironically, as Danny begins his own change process, he is fatally shot for defending a friend that was being harassed.

Transformational Learning as Theoretical Lens

Transformational learning occurs when individuals undergo, interpret and re-interpret an experience that results in a change of how they view themselves and the world around them (Grenier, 2010; Mezirow, 1997). This change, termed as perspective transformation, ultimately leads to a more developed and inclusive ‘frame of reference’. Frame of reference refers to collective assumptions through which individuals interpret and understand their world (Mezirow, 1997). Put simply, an individual's perspective is altered when s/he experiences and critically reflects upon a situation that is fundamentally different from prior learning and experiences. Transformational learning recognizes societal structures as the systems that shape learning and influence construction of knowledge, that an individual's learning is influenced by interaction with others within this structure, and by reinforcement of others' (popular) behaviors. The learning and knowledge gained through years of experience, based on such power pressures, generates an individual's own perspective. This perspective guides an individual unless there is an experience that alters this bias, thus resulting in change, learning and reflection. Mezirow (2000) explains this as the process of becoming critically aware of how and why an individual's assumptions have come to constrain the way s/he perceives, understands, and feels about the world. Because of this cognitive shift, the individual can move from being a passive victim of external influences to challenging prior assumptions and seeking alternative explanations and actions for events.

Clark (1991) identifies three dimensions to a perspective transformation experience that include psychological (changes in understanding of the self), convictional (revision of belief systems) and behavioral (changes in lifestyle). The real significance of adult learning appears when learners begin to re-evaluate their lives and to experience change on each dimension. Regardless, perspective transformation of an individual can be broadly divided into five stage process (Mezirow, 1991; 2000) that includes: Life History & Experiences (influence of formative events on value and beliefs), Disorienting Dilemma (an event or sequence of events that triggers a life crisis or major life transition), Critical Reflection (deconstruction of one's prior assumptions, such as a beliefs, value systems, attitudes, and social emotion in a rational way), Reflection-on-Action (a process for allowing someone become aware of and examine his/her assumptions/ beliefs embedded in actions, leading to potential transformation), and Transformation & Development (change/ transformation of one's perspective through thought and action). Each of these stages was used in the scene analysis and selection as described below.

Method

Content analysis procedures were used as the method of analysis for the film scenes. As content analysis assumes that a priori categories are used to frame the analysis but still allowing for emergent themes, it was appropriate to use with the transformational learning as the theoretical framework (Weber, 1990). Word counts were not used to identify scenes, rather scenes were selected as being representative of the perspective transformative stages based on their general meanings. My process included viewing the movie three different times, with the first viewing as an attempt to get a general sense of the film, its characters, and the general storyline. Scenes representative of transformational learning were then identified and matched to Mezirow's (2000) perspective transformation stages (i.e., Life History & Experiences Disorienting Dilemma Critical Reflection, Reflection-on-Action, and Transformation & Development) using a chart. The process involved reading the notes taken for each stage, reviewing scenes to ensure an exclusive fit in one of the categories, and making iterative changes. Throughout the analysis, I also identified the emergence of other learning theories (apart from transformative learning) that also explained the main character's change process. The scenes were then compared with the primary selected scenes mentioned in the first step and intersecting learning theories for each stage of perspective transformation were derived. Finally, I reviewed specific scenes with respect to their depiction of issues relating to race, diversity and cultural sensitivity as useful for teaching practices.

Film Analysis Results

The five stages of perspective transformation (Life History & Experiences, Disorienting Dilemma, Critical Reflection, Reflection-on-Action, and Transformation & Development) were used to examine Derek's experience. The following section includes a brief review of each of these stages, film excerpts, and intersecting learning theories.

Life History & Experiences

An individual's life history and experiences refers to all that has been gathered by him/her through life situations, experiences, instances, social interactions, culture, influence of external environment and family teachings and sharing of information. Mezirow (2000) refers to these experiences and subsequent learning gathered over the years as an individual's frame of reference and is best described as the personal paradigm that all meaning is construed and all learning takes place. For example, Derek developed knowledge and learning based on family situations (e.g. father's negative attitude towards other races; perceived cause of his father's death); influence of peer's teachings (a fellow inmate's neo-Nazi philosophy); his knowledge/learning based on his experience(s) in the prison; and his interaction with others in the prison (individuals who belonged to his community and individuals who did not).

Disorienting Dilemma

Mezirow (1990) explains that perspective transformation usually results from a disorienting dilemma that is triggered by a single life crisis or major life transition or result from an accumulation of transformations in ‘meaning schemes’ over a period. These ‘meaning schemes’ are frames of reference that are based on the totality of individuals' cultural and contextual experiences and that influence how they behave and interpret events (Taylor, 1998). For example, Derek's disorienting dilemma was the result of his victimization in the prison by individuals of his own community. This experience transformed Derek's perspective on racial bias by juxtaposing his prior assumptions (white supremacy) with his prison treatment (harassment and abuse), and resulting in Derek relinquishing his attitudes about people of color and violent acts.

Critical Reflection

Even more central to adult learning is the process of reflecting back on prior learning to determine whether prior learning is justified under present circumstances (Atherton, 2005). This process begins when one cannot accommodate an experience into the prior life structure and cognitive dissonance occurs (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). An important part of transformative learning is for the individual to change their frames of reference/meaning schemes by ‘critically reflecting’ on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making and implementing plans that bring about new ways of defining their worlds (Atherton, 2005). Mezirow (1990) maintains that such critical reflection on assumptions and presuppositions leads to transformative learning. For example, when Derek was victimized in the prison, he was unable to accommodate this experience into his life structure since the act was committed on people of his own community/group. This experience as well as his positive interactions with people of other community/group (that he disliked and was opposed to) made him reflect upon and analyze his prior learning in life.

Reflection-on-Action

During the reflection phase, the individual reflects on a situation after it has happened. By consciously returning to the experiences, individuals re-evaluate those experiences, decide what could be done differently and then try out a different approach (Mezirow, 1990). Action, in this context, includes revising points of view, reframing or solving problems, modifying attitudes, or producing changes in behavior. For Mezirow (1991), action in transformative theory is not only behavior, the effect of cause and effect, but rather ‘praxis’ described as the creative implementation of a purpose. As representative of this process, Derek evaluates his pre and post-prison life experience(s), and realizes they are not coordinated with his life structure. He then commits to oppose the systems and people that influenced his thinking.

Transformation & Development

The final stage of perspective transformation includes embodying change through action and continued self-growth. Derek's action was to leave Cameron's organization (neo-Nazi group), to actively oppose the beliefs and teachings followed by this organization and to help his brother (Danny) do the same. Therefore, transformational learning theory is the connecting learning theory at this stage of perspective transformation, which leads to an individual's transformation and development or change of perspective.

Intersecting Learning Theories

Although the stages of perspective transformation within transformational learning theory did describe Derek's change process, other learning theories were found as representative and explanatory of specific experiences. Specifically, social learning & behavior modeling, experiential learning theory, critical theory, social constructivism and contextual learning emerged throughout Derek's learning process. Although transformational learning theory modeled his change process most, the emergence of other learning theories demonstrates the potential for similar and yet unique contributions from various learning concepts to describe individual learning.

Most human behavior is vicariously learned through observing other's actions and reactions to social situations. By observing others actions and consequences of those actions, an individual engages in social learning by forming an idea of how new behaviors are performed which later serves as a guide for individual action (Bandura, 1977). Derek's use of social learning played a large formative role in guiding his attitudes about self and other, namely that anything different from him was negative or bad. For example, Derek gathers his knowledge and experience based on his social networks, which include Cameron (neo-Nazi leader; a fellow inmate) and his followers. Derek also modeled his father's behavior by expressing feelings of animosity towards other races, verbally as well as by committing acts of racial crimes in the city such as damaging a store owned by a Korean and challenging some African-American players to play basketball games to win the court as their own territory. Furthermore, Danny in his aspiration to become a neo-Nazi like his brother, embodies Derek's behavior by emulating racist ideology and behavior that includes writing a favorable review of Hitler's Mein Kamph for a school assignment.

Experiential learning theory best explains Derek's disorienting experience and initial movement toward transformation. Jarvis's (1987) model of learning process begins with the whole person who encounters an experience in his social context, one that cannot be automatically accommodated or assimilated (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). This creates a disjuncture between one's biography and the experience, a state of unease that can trigger learning – thinking, doing or feeling. For example, Derek's prison experience creates a state of unease for him since it did not match his prior beliefs and teachings. This triggers learning, in the form of thinking, feeling (emotionally) as well as doing (acting). This new experience of Derek triggered a major life transition in his perspective, causing a disorienting dilemma.

Another intersecting theory that help explains Derek's tension between prior experiences and current experiences is critical theory. Critical theory suggests that an individual's awareness of oppression caused by larger systems in society, culture, and the structural and historical conditions, can lead to resistance and possibly change (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). In the movie, these societal structures refer to different races and their culture and the learning/knowledge of people belonging to these different races/groups is highly influenced by the teaching of the neo-Nazi group. Derek's main perspective was influenced by these structures/systems, teachings of his father, and teachings of Cameron (a peer in prison). However, after he was a target of victimization by people of his own race, he becomes aware of the oppression caused by such systems and their teachings, thus resisting the old system and deriving a more inclusive perspective on racial quality and diversity.

The next supportive learning theory evident in Derek's change process is social constructivism. Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prawat & Floden, 1994). Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members (Driver et al., 1994). For example, Derek's family history/culture (of dislike towards other groups) influenced his learning and knowledge about racial groups. For example, his father's critical attitudes and beliefs in affirmative action influenced Derek's main perspective about racial differences and workplace equality as represented in the scene when Derek explains that he is reading black literature in English class and his father asks if it is black history month. His father then shares that his fire station hired two black men over a white man because of the company's affirmative action policy. At the end of the scene, his father advises him not to believe any person of African American descent. Other examples include Derek's interactions in the prison, his interactions with Dr. Sweeny (his high school teacher, an African American male), and his conversations with his brother Danny. With Dr. Sweeney, Derek reflected upon his prior beliefs and decided to embrace a more inclusive and egalitarian perspective. His father's teachings or a neo-Nazi perspective no longer guided his attitude and perspective towards other races and communities. He also shared his prison-life experiences with Danny, and encouraged him to develop a perspective that was different from his past beliefs.

Finally, contextual learning theory plays a prime role in framing Derek's emerging perspective on racial acceptance. Individual knowledge is inseparable from the contexts and activities within which it develops and interactions with others in learners' social environments are major factors influencing what is learned and how the learning takes place (Borko & Putnam, 1998). Similarly, Derek develops his learning and personal paradigm (prior to prison-life) based on family situations or teachings from his father and based on the perceived cause of his father's death. The context in this case is Derek's interaction with his father and the incident of his father's death. When he mentions to his father that he is reading black literature in English class, his father shares his attitude against affirmative action, and advises him not to give in to his professor's (an African American) ‘trap’ of convincing him racial prejudice is wrong. Moreover, the incident of his father's murder and that it was committed by an African American, is the main cause of Derek's decision to join a neo-Nazi gang.

As outlined above, Derek moves though each of the five stages of perspective transformation as his attitude toward racial bias changes based on his experiences. Additional examples of social learning/modeling, experiential theory, social cognitive learning and contextual learning are also evident in the movie expanding how the audience can view Derek's change process, thus allowing the film to provide a useful template for exploring multiple learning theories. Table 1 below summarizes the learning theories as identified in different stages of Derek's perspective transformation.

Table 1. Intersecting Learning Theories Descriptions

Learning Situations & Theories Identified	Example Descriptions
Social Learning & Behavior Modeling	Danny observes and models Derek's behavior and attitudes, like joining Cameron's Organization, changing his appearance, etc. He learns by interpreting outcomes of Derek's behavior – confidence, popularity, fame, esteem, etc.
Critical Theory	The ‘system’ here is the organization run by Cameron, the culture of both communities and the teachings from previous generation. These systems influence learning of Derek and his brother, Danny. Derek experiences a situation & (in the prison) and becomes aware of the oppression caused by such systems and their teachings. This leads to his resistance towards the system and change in his perspective(s).
Social Constructivism	Derek shares his principles and beliefs with others in the community.
	Danny is introduced to the organization/community by Cameron and his followers & (Derek's colleagues). He learns from his brothers and his brothers' colleagues about their goals and culture.
	Derek follows the teachings and knowledge of his father; he discusses their culture, issues and goals with his father.
Transformational Learning Perspective Transformation Critical Reflection/Experiential Learning Narrative Learning	Derek encounters an experience in the prison that creates a state of unease for him, since it did not match his prior beliefs and teachings. Following his interactions & dealings with Dr. Sweeney, Derek reflects upon his beliefs, decides to follow a renewed way of living. He is a changed person with new, improved beliefs and principles, and is now committed to oppose the power authorities & (systems & people) that influenced his thinking. He is also now committed to help his brother, Danny, escape this system and power influence.
	Derek shares his prison-life experiences with Danny. This sharing enables Danny to view and understand a perspective – different from past beliefs.

Suggestions for Using Media in Instructional Settings

Adult educators are faced with the challenge of finding creative ways to help understand and apply theories to professional practice. This sections describes the utility of using films as narrative to discuss controversial issues and identifies specific scene selections from American History X to illustrate concepts of race, diversity and cultural sensitivity.

Media as critical instructional narratives

Although American History X was used to primarily examine the stages of perspective transformation and other adult learning theories in this article, it also provides a useful medium to discuss issues of racial bias and diversity in instructional or workplace learning sessions (as noted in Table 2).

Table 2. Scenes Selected for Teaching Race, Diversity and Cultural-Sensitivity Issues

Issues Topic	Scenes / Movie Clips
Race	Basketball match between the two races resulting in hatred and rage
Cultural-sensitivity	Derek's father sharing his viewpoints with Derek regarding the negative influences of other communities
Race	Derek being victimized in the prison by people of his own race/community
Race & Diversity	Derek's positive experiences in the prison with people from other community
Race	Danny being influenced by people from his community to join Cameron's organization
Diversity & cultural-sensitivity	Derek's outburst against other communities & cultures on TV, when his father died
Race & cultural-sensitivity	Danny being shot in school by a boy from another race/community

The use of film analysis is a viable andragogical tool that can be used to engender a critical perspective given its rich ability to challenge adults to think critically about experiences as they occur in the social context and examine problems that foster intergroup/inter-community prejudices and misunderstandings (English, 1995 & 2003; Kellner, 1989 & 2003). Therefore, adult educators could select films or other media forms that encourage critical thinking about contemporary issues such as race, gender, age, ability, or any other perceived differences that makes it difficult for people to get along. Such films should be helpful to bring learning theories to life, and create situations in which learners will have common frames of reference. Depictions in the media/film come to serve as learning guides through which social norms are internalized (Nakkula & Toshalis, 2006). As noted by Coltrane (2000), media images provide both confirmation of one's worldview, promote acceptance of current social arrangements and reassure people that things are the way they ought to be, but can also challenge the dominant ideology of issues thus making it a potent form of social discourse and change.

Approach Toward Critical Film Analysis

Rosser (2007) discussed two approaches to engaging in critical media analysis. The first approach consists of providing the topic and presenting the theories up front for discussion prior to viewing the film. The second approach is to use the film to cover several topics that have been discussed in class. The approach discussed in this paper is a combination of the two. The instructor first provides the topic (i.e., diversity issues depicted in the film) for discussion prior to the film. Covering the entire content (for e.g., all the issues depicted in the film) prior to showing the film would provide the required knowledge to the learners needed to view the film and understand the concepts. This would also enable the learners to recognize their application as they view the film. While using this approach, it is a good idea to provide some reflective questions to the learners in advance (before they view the film). In this approach, learners can be asked to engage in journaling about the characters, scenes and their reaction to the issues presented. Certain scenes can be repeated for more emphasis on theories or concepts.

Repeating the scenes is especially helpful when trying to develop learner's understanding of complex topics (Wolensky, 1982). For example, the scenes (as depicted in Figure 1) portraying Derek's transformation through the different stages of learning are effective for a discussion on perspective transformation. These include Derek's discussion with his father on race and his ‘inappropriate’ assignments at school; Derek's outburst when his father died; Derek's decision to join Cameron and his organization; and Derek's positive experiences with people from other race/community are examples of scenes that may need to be examined several times by students to consider the implications of learning theories, concepts and to spur critical reflection of certain issues. The facilitator could ask learners to identify the scenes as representative of these issues and related learning theories, or be given a completed worksheet (like that represented in Figure 1 or Table 1 and 2) and ask learners to debate the merits of whether these scenes actually do accurately represent the theories and issues. Yet another approach would be to use guiding questions to prompt learners to explore issues of change and group differences in film as listed in Table 3 for post-film discussion or reflective journaling.

Figure 1. Perspective Transformation Stages & Intersecting Learning Theories

Table 3. Sample Discussion Questions for Critical Analysis

What is the main issue being discussed or portrayed in the movie?

Which learning theories are evident in the movie? Provide evidence to support your argument.

Give examples (movie clips) to support your analysis on which character(s) underwent a learning process. Which learning theory did this experience / these experiences relate to?

What feelings are evoked in you by the manner in which the following scenes are presented: Basketball match between the two races leading to a clash. Derek's positive experiences in the prison with people of other race/culture. Derek's father teaching him on why their culture is superior to the others. Derek shooting an African-American when he breaks into Derek's car.

What does the movie communicate concerning issues of race and intolerance? Which systems and/or socio-cultural factors played an important role in shaping the main character's perspective and response to these issues?

Identify the race and cultural dynamics in play during each of the following scenes: Derek's outburst against other communities and cultures on TV, when his father died. Derek's positive and negative interactions/experiences in the prison. Danny being encouraged by Cameron to join his organization. Derek's father killed by an African-American drug-dealer. Derek being attacked by Cameron and other colleagues when he rejects Cameron's viewpoints and encourages others to do so (post-prison experience)

Consider how and what do the scenes (as mentioned in Qn. 4 & 6 above) portray about your own stance and the way in which you may construct race, class and cultural identity?

Considering the scene where in Derek's father teaches him about the positive aspects of their culture and the negative influence of other cultures – how do you think the dominant culture generally view the issues of race, diversity and cultural-sensitivity?

What do you think are the ways in which an individual's perspective, based on his/her belongingness (or non-belongingness) to a particular race/class, can be challenged? What will be the positive and negative implications of doing so?

In the class discussions that emerge during the post-film analysis, facilitators can encourage learners to engage in reflective listening, dialogue and critical questioning and their interpretation of scenes and evidence, interpretations, and suggestions for fostering adult learning. The learners can also discuss the questions after watching the film, or write up a summary of all the theories and concepts they observed including their application.

Summary and Conclusion

In this paper, Mezirow's (2000) transformational learning theory was used to analyze American History X to identify the perspective transformation stages evidenced in the main character (Derek). In addition, intersecting learning theories were identified as extending the discussion of transformational learning theory. Scene selections regarding learning theories in addition to topical issues of race, class and diversity were discussed, and suggested questions and class materials were provided. Adult learning educators can employ media analysis as a method to engage learners in critical reflection on individual, group or organizational issues relative to change and diversity, and as an alternative form of teaching adult learning theories.

Films and other media serve as intentional and unintentional sites for learning as they create a visual and emotional connection for the learners sometimes not occurring with traditional forms of learning. Because various forms of media are becoming increasingly accessible and preferred as sites of informal and non-formal learning, adult educators should consider how to leverage these mediums to enrich adult learning.