Extreme events as shaping physiology, ecology, and evolution of plants: toward a unified definition and evaluation of their consequences
Article first published online: 12 AUG 2003
DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00866.x
Additional Information
How to Cite
Gutschick, V. P. and BassiriRad, H. (2003), Extreme events as shaping physiology, ecology, and evolution of plants: toward a unified definition and evaluation of their consequences. New Phytologist, 160: 21–42. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00866.x
Publication History
- Issue published online: 12 AUG 2003
- Article first published online: 12 AUG 2003
- Received: 9 April 2003 Accepted: 20 June 2003; doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00866.x
Acknowledgements
We thank Mark Robertson, Dan Howard, John Lussenhoop, Roy Plotnick, and Lou Ellen Kay for helpful comments on the manuscript. David Ackerly and an anonymous referee offered immeasurably helpful critical reviews that led to complete reorganization of the presentation for improved clarity and to more correct presentation of evolutionary concepts. Author Gutschick gratefully acknowledges support from the Long-Term Ecological Research Program of the National Science Foundation, USA, award DEB-00R0412. Author BassiriRad gratefully acknowledges the National Science Foundation, USA, award IBN-0213066.
References
- , . 1999. Convergence and correlations among leaf size and function in seed plants: a comparative test using independent contrasts. American Journal of Botany 86: 1272–1281.
- . 1999. Interspecific competition in natural plant communities: mechanisms, trade-offs and plant-soil feedbacks. Journal of Experimental Botany 50: 29–37.
- , . 2000. The mineral nutrition of wild plants revisited: a re-evaluation of processes and patterns. Advances in Ecological Research 30: 1–67.
- , . 1998. Drought-induced shift of a forest-woodland ecotone: rapid landscape response to climate variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 95: 14839–14892.
- , . 1992. Toward a unified ecology. New York, USA: Columbia University Press.
- , . 1998. Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 353: 177–186.
- . 1998. Biophysical and biochemical sources of variability in canopy reflectance. Remote Sensing of the Environment 64: 234–253.
- , , , . 1998. Ecological research needs from multiangle remote sensing data. Remote Sensing of the Environment 63: 155–165.
- , . 2002. Spectral unmixing of vegetation, soil and dry carbon cover in arid regions: comparing multispectral and hyperspectral observations. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23: 3939–3958.
- . 1999. The cellular basis of guard cell sensing of rising CO2. Plant, Cell & Environment 22: 629–637.
- , . 1991. The impact of plant stomatal control on mesoscale atmospheric circulations. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 54: 353–372.
- , . 2000. Assessing the consequences of global change for forest disturbance from herbivores and pathogens. Science of the Total Environment 262: 263–286.
- , , , , . 1997. Microclimate above grass adversely affects spring growth of seedling snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora). Plant, Cell & Environment 20: 155–166. Direct Link:
- , , , , . 2002. Mechanisms of competition: thermal inhibition of tree seedling growth by grass. Oecologia 133: 120–130.
- , , . 1991. Cold-induced photoinhibition limits regeneration of snow gum at tree line. Functional Ecology 5: 663–668.
- , , . 1987. A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions. In: BigginsJ, ed. Progress in Photosynthesis Research, Vol. 4. Dordrecht, Germany: Martinas Nijhoff, 5.221–5.224.
- , . 1992a. Root growth, osmotic adjustment and NO3− uptake during and after a period of drought in Artemisia tridentata. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 19: 493–500.
- , . 1992b. Temporal changes in root growth and 15N uptake and water relations of two tussock grass species recovering from water stress. Physiologia Plantarum 86: 525–531.
- , , . 2000. Root system adjustments: regulation of plant nutrient uptake and its control of growth responses to elevated CO2. Oecologia 126: 305–320.
- , , , , , . 1999. Short-term patterns in water and nitrogen acquisition by two desert shrubs following a simulated summer rain. Plant Ecology 145: 27–36.
- , , . 1998. Seasonal variation in the frost hardiness of Scots pine and Norway spruce in old provenance experiments in Finland. Forest Ecology and Management 107: 87–98.
- , , , , , , , . 2002. Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model. Ecological Economics 41: 529–560.
- . 1998. The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on the Australian biota. New Phytologist 140: 385–410.
- . 2002. Identification of anthropogenic burning in the paleoecological record of the northern prairies: a new approach. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92: 471–487. Direct Link:
- . 2001. A review of forest gap models. Climatic Change 51: 259–305.
- . 1993. Effects of doubled atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration on the responses of assimilation and conductance to humidity. Plant, Cell & Environment 16: 189–197. Direct Link:
- . 1998. Effects of environment during growth on the sensitivity of leaf conductance to changes in humidity. Global Change Biology 4: 269–274.
- . 2001. Are annual plants adapted to the current atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide? International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: 1261–1266.
- , , . 2001. Root traits associated with nutrient exploration following defoliation in three coexisting perennial grasses in a semi-arid savanna. Oikos 93: 332–342. Direct Link:
- . 1998. The implications of predicted climate change for insect pests in the UK, with emphasis on non-indigenous species. Global Change Biology 4: 785–796.
- , . 2000. Herbivory and plant species coexistence: Community regulation by an outbreaking phytophagous insect. Ecological Monographs 70: 73–99.
- . 1980. The mineral nutrition of wild plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 31: 233–260.
- , , . 1993. Evolution of suites of traits in response to environmental stress. American Naturalist 142: S78–S92.
- , , , , , , , , , . 1995. Partitioning of ocean and land uptake of CO2 as inferred by δ13C measurements from the NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory Global Air Sampling Network. Journal of Geophysical Research D 100: 5051–5070.
- , , , , , , , , , . 2001. Ecological forecasts: An emerging imperative. Science 293: 657–660.
- , , . 1999. Climate change and plant disease management. Annual Review of Phytopathology 37: 399–426.
- . 1966. Optimizing reproduction in a randomly varying environment. Journal of Theoretical Biology 12: 119–129.
- . 1971. Maximizing final yield when growth is limited by time or by limiting resources. Journal of Theoretical Biology 33: 299–307.
- , . 1998. Potential impacts of climate change on tropical Asian forests through an influence on phenology. Climatic Change 39: 439–453.
- , . 1995. Wind and trees. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- , . 1998. A meta-analysis of elevated CO2 effects on woody plant mass, form, and physiology. Oecologia 113: 299–313.
- . 1994. Extreme drag forces and the survival of wind-swept and water-swept organisms. Journal of Experimental Biology 194: 97–115.
- . 1995. Interpretation of an empirical model for stomatal conductance in terms of guard cell function. Plant, Cell & Environment 18: 365–372. Direct Link:
- . 1995. The natural history of time series. In: PowellTM, SteeleJH, eds. Ecological time series. New York, USA: Chapman & Hall, 70–90.
- , , . 1996. The relationship of leaf wetness duration and disease progress of glume blotch, caused by Stagnospora nodorum, in winter wheat to standard weather data. European Journal of Plant Pathology 102: 9–20.
- , , . 2000. Plasticity to light cues and resources in Arabidopsis thaliana: Testing for adaptive value and costs. Evolution 54: 1982–1994.
- , . 1970. Varietal differences in net photosynthesis of soybean leaves. Crop Science 10: 42–45.
- , . 1997. Detecting life history trade-offs: Measuring energy stores in ‘capital’ breeders reveals costs of reproduction. Oecologia 110: 508–513.
- , , , , , , . 1999. Long-term observations for monitoring extremes in the Americas. Climatic Change 42: 285–308.
- , , , , , . 2000a. Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events: a brief review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 81: 417–425.
- , , , , , . 2000b. Climate extremes: Observations, modeling, and impacts. Science 289: 2068–2074.
- , , . 1997. C-4 photosynthesis, atmospheric CO2 and climate. Oecologia 112: 285–299.
- , . 2001. Constraint to adaptive evolution in response to global warming. Science 294: 151–154.
- , . 1984. Isotopic composition of plant carbon correlates with water-use efficiency of wheat genotypes. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 11: 539–552.
- , , . 1980. A biochemical model of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation in leaves of C3 plants. Planta 149: 78–90.
- , . 1999. Heat-shock proteins, molecular chaperones, and the stress response: Evolutionary and ecological physiology. Annual Review of Physiology 61: 243–282.
- , . 2000. Potential growth and drought tolerance of eight desert grasses: lack of a trade-off? Oecologia 123: 90–98.
- , . 1999. The not-so-big US carbon sink. Science 285: 544–545.
- , , . 1983. Compromises between water-use efficiency and nitrogen-use efficiency in five species of California evergreens. Oecologia 60: 384–389.
- , . 2002. Rapid changes in flowering time in British plants. Science 296: 1689–1691.
- , . 1988. Differential survival of chaparral seedlings during the first summer drought after wildfire. Oecologia 76: 215–221.
- , . 1999. Neighborhood effects, disturbance severity, and community stability in forests. Ecosystems 2: 151–166.
- . 1998. Evolutionary biology, 3rd edn. New York, USA: Sinauer Associates.
- , . 1993. The largest, smallest, highest, lowest, longest, and shortest: extremes in ecology. Ecology 74: 1677–1692.
- , . 1994. Leaf anatomy, specific mass and water content in congeneric annual and perennial grass species. New Phytologist 128: 725–736. Direct Link:
- , , , , , , , . 2001. Consistency of species ranking based on functional leaf traits. New Phytologist 152: 69–83.
- , . 2000. Water and nitrogen uptake patterns following moisture pulses in a cold desert community. Ecology 81: 1415–1424.
- , . 1997. On the relative importance of competition in unproductive environments. Journal of Ecology 85: 409–481.
- . 2000. Increased risk of predation as a cost of high growth rate: an experimental test in a butterfly. Journal of Animal Ecology 69: 896–902.
- , . 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist program. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 205: 581–598.
- , , . 2000. Spatial distribution of cell division rate can be deduced from that of p34 (cdc2) kinase activity in maize leaves grown at contrasting temperatures and soil water conditions. Plant Physiology 124: 1393–1402.
- , . 1995. Predicting microevolutionary responses to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49: 241–251.
- , , , . 2000. Effects of El Niño events on Darwin's finch productivity. Ecology 81: 2442–2457.
- , , . 1988. The effects of soil and atmospheric drought on photosynthesis and stomatal control of gas exchange in three coniferous species. Physiologia Plantarum 73: 97–104. Direct Link:
- . 1987. A functional biology of crop plants. London, UK: Croom-Helm/Beaverton, OR, USA: Timber Press.
- . 1999. Biotic and abiotic consequences of differences in leaf structure. New Phytologist 143: 3–18. Direct Link:
- , . 1995. Nutrient-limited growth rates: Quantitative benefits of stress responses and some aspects of regulation. Journal of Experimental Botany 46: 995–1009.
- , . 2002. Modelling stomatal conductance of field-grown sunflower under varying soil water status and leaf environment: comparison of three models of response to leaf environment and coupling with an ABA-based model of response to soil drying. Plant, Cell & Environment 25: 1423–1434.
- , . 1988. Optimizing the canopy photosynthetic rate by patterns of investment in specific leaf mass. American Naturalist 132: 67–86.
- , , , . 2000. Effects of extreme high temperature, drought and elevated CO2 on photosynthesis of the Mojave Desert evergreen shrub, Larrea tridentata. Plant Ecology 148: 183–193.
- . 1995. Effects of climatic change on trees from cool and temperate regions – an ecophysiological approach to modeling of bud burst phenology. Canadian Journal of Botany – Revue Canadienne de Botanique 73: 183–199.
- , . 2000. Laboratory selection experiments using Drosophila: what do they really tell us? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15: 32–36.
- , . 1997. Plant chemistry and herbivory, or why the world is green. In: CrawleyMJ, ed. Plant ecology, 2nd edn. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. 284–324.
- . 1993. Characterization of thermal damage to the photosynthetic electron transport system in potato leaves. Plant Science 94: 19–33.
- . 1993. Daylength and thermal time responses of budburst during dormancy release in some northern deciduous trees. Physiologia Plantarum 88: 531–540. Direct Link:
- . 1994. Control of flowering and reproduction in temperate grasses. New Phytologist 128: 347–362. Direct Link:
- . 1997. Modelling optimal temperature acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus in C3 plants with respect to nitrogen use. Annals of Botany 80: 721–730.
- , , . 1994. Cold-induced photoinhibition and design of shelters for establishment of eucalypts in pasture. Australian Journal of Botany 42: 139–147.
- . 2003. On the evolutionary ecology of species’ ranges. Evolutionary Ecology Research 5: 159–178.
- . 1999. Adaptive evolution of genes and genomes. New York, USA: Oxford University Press.
- , , . 1997. Phenotypic plasticity and similarity of DNA among genotypes of an annual plant. Heredity 78: 176–181.
- . 1992. Plants and microclimate: a quantitative approach to plant physiology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- , . 1998. Estimating autocorrelations of daily extreme temperatures in observed and simulated climates. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 59: 151–164.
- , . 1994. Sensitivity of extreme events to climate change: the case of autocorrelated time series. Environmetrics 5: 451–462. Direct Link:
- , , . 2002. Statistics of extremes in hydrology. Advances in Water Resources 25: 1287–1304.
- . 1983. The neutral theory of molecular evolution. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press.
- , . 1998. A model of frost impacts on seasonal photosynthesis of Eucalyptus pauciflora. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 25: 27–37.
- , , . 2001. Variation, selection and evolution of function-valued traits. Genetica 112–113: 87–104.
- , , , , , , , , . 2001. The strength of phenotypic selection in natural populations. American Naturalist 157: 245–261.
- , . 2001. Ecological traps in changing environments: Ecological and evolutionary consequences of a behaviourally mediated Allee effect. Evolutionary Ecology Research 3: 537–551.
- , , , , , , . 2002. Comparative mapping of loci controlling winter survival and related traits in oilseed Brassica rapa and B. napus. Molecular Breeding 9: 201–210.
- . 1996. Breeding plans in case of global warming. Euphytica 92: 235–239.
- , . 1995. Molecular evidence for natural selection. Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics 26: 403–422.
- , , , . 1995. RFLP mapping of 5 major genes and 8 quantitative trait loci controlling flowering time in a winter x spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cross. Genome 38: 575–585.
- , . 1993. Alternative permanent states of ecological communities. Ecology 74: 1347–1361.
- , . 1994. Dynamics of adaptation and diversification – a 10 000-generation experiment with bacterial populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 91: 6808–6814.
- , , . 1994. The evolution of phenotypic life-history trade-offs: an experimental study using Drosophila melanogaster. American Naturalist 144: 661–676.
- . 1995. A critical appraisal of a combined stomatal-photosynthesis model for C3 plants. Plant, Cell & Environment 18: 339–355. Direct Link:
- , . 1996. The CO2 dependence of photosynthesis, plant growth responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration and their interaction with soil nutrient status. I. General principles and forest ecosystems. Functional Ecology 10: 4–32.
- , . 1996. Model-based assessments of climate change effects on forests: a critical review. Ecological Modelling 90: 1–31.
- . 1939. High temperature tolerance of forest trees. Technical Bulletin 141.St. Paul, MN, USA: University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.
- . 2001. Historical and ecological roles of disturbance in eastern North American forests: 9000 years of change. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 425–439.
- , , , , . 1996. Sensitivity of leaf photosynthesis to CO2 concentration is an invariant function for C3 plants: a test with experimental data and global applications. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 10: 209–222.
- , , , , , . 1998. Elevated atmospheric CO2 promotes frost damage in evergreen tree seedlings. Plant, Cell & Environment 21: 631–635.
- , . 2002. The vulnerability to freezing-induced xylem cavitation of Larrea tridentata (Zygophyllaceae) in the Chihuahuan desert. American Journal of Botany 89: 1916–1924.
- , . 2001. The temperature dependence of shoot hydraulic resistance: implications for stomatal behaviour and hydraulic limitation. Plant, Cell & Environment 24: 1299–1307.
- , , , . 1996. Photochemical response to drought acclimation in two sunflower genotypes. Physiologia Plantarum 98: 57–66.
- , . 2001. Forty years of numerical climate modelling. International Journal of Climatology 21: 1067–1109. Direct Link:
- , , , , , , , , , . 2000. An introduction to trends in extreme weather and climate events: observations, socioeconomic impacts, terrestrial ecological impacts, and model projections. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 81: 413–416.
- . 2003. Functional convergence in plant responses to the environment. Oecologia 134: 1–11.
- . 2003. Maximum likelihood estimation of relatedness. Genetics 163: 1153–1167.
- , , , . 1998. Stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in Quaternary soil carbonates as indicators of ecomorphic changes in the northern Chihuahuan Desert. Geoderma 82: 137–172.
- , , . 1991. Responses of plants to multiple stresses. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press.
- , . 2003. Phoenix clones: recovery after long-term defoliation-induced dormancy. Ecology Letters 6: 119–125.
- , , , , . 1997. Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature 386: 698–702.
- , , , , , , , . 2002. Mechanisms of long-distance dispersal of seeds by wind. Nature 418: 409–413.
- . 1993. Vegetation redistribution – a possible biosphere source of CO2 during climatic change. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 70: 659–673.
- . 2001. Global-scale climatic controls of leaf dry mass per area, density, and thickness in trees and shrubs. Ecology 82: 453–469.
- , . 1994. The allometry of nitrogen allocation to growth and an inducible defense under nitrogen-limited growth. Ecology 75: 995–1002.
- , . 1994. Genotypic differences in water-use efficiency and C-13 discrimination in Eucalyptus globulus. Tree Physiology 14: 871–882.
- , . 1974. Plant yield and the switch from vegetative to reproductive growth. Journal of Theoretical Biology 44: 23–34.
- , , . 1984. Determinism, senescence and the yield of plants. Theoretical Biology 110: 383–398.
- , , , . 2001. Simulation output analysis using the threshold bootstrap. European Journal of Operational Research 134: 17–28.
- , . 2003. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421: 37–42.
- , , . 1997. Whole-plant nitrogen- and water-relation traits, and their associated trade-offs, in adjacent muskeg and upland boreal spruce species. Oecologia 110: 160–168.
- , , , , , , , , , , CMEAL participants. 1999. The photosynthesis-leaf nitrogen relationship at ambient and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide: a meta-analysis. Global Change Biology 5: 331–346.
- , , eds. 1985. The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Orlando, FL, USA: Academic Press.
- , . 1999. Genes affecting phenotypic plasticity in Arabidopsis: pleiotropic effects and reproductive fitness of photomorphogenic mutants. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 12: 551–562.
- , . 1997. Freezing-induced xylem cavitation and the northern limit of Larrea tridentata. Oecologia 109: 19–27.
- , , , . 2002. Growth rate and survivorship of drought: CO2 effects on the presumed tradeoff in seedlings of five woody legumes. Tree Physiology 22: 383–391.
- . 1993. Interspecific variation in the growth response of plants to an elevated ambient CO2 concentration. Vegetatio 104/105: 77–97.
- , , . 1996. Consumption and production of carbon monoxide in soils: a global model analysis of spatial and seasonal variation. Chemosphere 33: 1175–1193.
- . 1999. Can plasticity compensate for architectural constraints on reproduction? Patterns of seed production and carbohydrate translocation in Perilla frutescens. Journal of Ecology 87: 697–712.
- , . 1994. Generating surrogate data for time series with several simultaneously measured variables. Physical Review Letters 73: 951–954.
- , , . 1997. From tropics to tundra: Global convergence in plant functioning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 94: 13730–13734.
- , . 2002. The physiology/life-history nexus. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17: 462–468.
- , , , . 2002. Directional selection is the primary cause of phenotypic diversification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 99: 12242–12245.
- , , . 2001. Stomatal conductivity and osmotic adjustment during acclimation to multiple cycles of drought stress in potted miniature rose (Rosa× hybrida). Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 76: 138–144.
- , , . 1994. The quantitative genetics of floral characters in Mimulus guttatus. Heredity 72: 300–311.
- , , . 1999. The relationship between leaf composition and morphology at elevated CO2 concentrations. New Phytologist 143: 63–72. Direct Link:
- , , , , . 1998. Are large, infrequent disturbances qualitatively different from small, infrequent disturbances? Ecosystems 1: 524–534.
- , , , , , . 2003. Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421: 57–60.
- , , , . 1997. Mechanisms for the increase in phosphorus uptake of waterlogged plants: soil phosphorus availability, root morphology and uptake kinetics. Oecologia 112: 150–155.
- , , , . 2000. Water stress preconditioning to improve drought resistance in young apricot plants. Plant Science 156: 245–251.
- , . 2001. Effects of low atmospheric CO2 on plants: more than a thing of the past. Trends in Plant Science 6: 18–24.
- , . 1999. A semiempirical downscaling approach for predicting regional temperature impacts associated with climatic change. Journal of Climate 12: 103–114.
- , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 2000. Biodiversity – Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287: 1770–1774.
- , , , , . 2001. Tree and forest functioning in response to global warming. New Phytologist 149: 369–399.
- , . 1999. Carbon gain in a multispecies canopy: the role of specific leaf area and photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency in the tragedy of the commons. New Phytologist 143: 201–211. Direct Link:
- . 1995. Terrestrial ecosystems and the carbon cycle. Global Change Biology 1: 77–91. Direct Link:
- , , . 2002. Ecological and evolutionary traps. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17: 474–480.
- , . 1997. A statistical model to downscale local daily temperature extremes from synoptic-scale atmospheric circulation patterns in the Australian region. Climate Dynamics 13: 223–234.
- , . 2001. Flammability and serotiny as strategies: correlated evolution in pines. Oikos 94: 326–336. Direct Link:
- , , , . 2000. Estimating disease risk at the whole plant level with General Circulation Models. Environmental Pollution 108: 389–395.
- . 2000. Cause and correlation in biology: a user's guide to path analysis, structural equations and causal inference. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- , . 1996. Responses to photoperiod change with phenophase and temperature during wheat development. Field Crops Research 46: 1–13.
- , . 1997. Climate change and terrestrial biomass: what if trees do not migrate? Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 6: 139–148.
- , , , . 1998. Limitation of plant water use by rhizosphere and xylem conductance: results from a model. Plant, Cell and Environment 21: 347–359.
- , . 2002. Rubisco: Structure, regulatory interactions, and possibilities for a better enzyme. Annual Review of Plant Biology 53: 449–475.
- , . 1998. Effects of temperature extremes on genetic variances for life history traits in Drosophila melanogaster as determined from parent-offspring comparisons. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 11: 1–20.
- , . 1984. Coevolution in ecosystems: Red Queen or stasis? Evolution 38: 870–880.
- , , . 1993. A procedure for generating synthetic weather records in conjunction of climatic scenario for modeling of ecological impacts of changing climate in boreal conditions. Ecological Modelling 70: 195–220.
- , , . 2003. Relationships among species traits: separating levels of response and identifying linkages to abundance. Ecology 84: 1–16.
- . 1998. Implications of global change and climate variability for vectorborne diseases: generic approaches to impact assessments. International Journal of Parasitology 28: 935–945.
- . 1998. Interannual variations in the population biology and productivity of Euphasia pacifica. Barkley Sound, Canada, with special reference to the 1992 and 1993 warm ocean years. Marine Ecology Progress Series 173: 163–180.
- , , . 1999. Modelling leaf expansion in a fluctuating environment: are changes in specific leaf area a consequence of changes in expansion rate? New Phytologist 143: 33–44. Direct Link:
- , , . 1993. Viewpoint – plant community thresholds, multiple steady states, and multiple successional pathways: legacy of the Quaternary. Journal of Range Management 46: 439–447.
- , , . 1998. Flowering of Xanthorrhoea fulva: the effect of fire and clipping. Australian Journal of Botany 46: 241–251.
- , , , , . 1990. Factors influencing carbon fixation and water use by Mediterranean sclerophyll shrubs during summer drought. Oecologia 82: 381–393.
- . 1986. Water use characteristics of Dactylis glomerata L., Lolium perenne L. & L. multiflorum Lam. plants. Annals of Botany 57: 211–223.
- , . 1989. Recovery patterns of three chaparral shrub species after wildfire. Oecologia 80: 309–320.
- . 1998. Rapid evolution as an ecological process. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13: 329–332.
- . 1989. The role of optimizing selection in natural populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20: 279–296.
- , ed. 1992. Climate system modeling. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- . 1997. Phenotypic selection in an intertidal snail: Effects of a catastrophic storm. Marine Ecology Progress Series 151: 73–79.
- , . 1988. Do woody plants operate near the point of catastrophic xylem dysfunction caused by dynamic water stress? Plant Physiology 88: 574–580.
- . 1973. A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory 1: 1–30.
- , . 1999. Tradeoffs between irradiance capture and avoidance in semi-arid environments assessed with a crown architecture model. Annals of Botany 83: 459–469.
- , , , . 1993. Contribution of physiological and morphological plant traits to a species’ competitive ability at high and low nitrogen supply – a hypothesis for inherently fast-growing and slow-growing monocotyledenous species. Oecologia 94: 434–440.
- . 1996. Scenarios of extreme temperature events. Climate Change 33: 385–407.
- , , . 1998. Tradeoffs between hydraulic efficiency and mechanical strength in the stems of four co-occurring species of chaparral shrubs. Oecologia 117: 53–62.
- . 1981. Basic population genetics. New York, USA: Columbia University Press.
- , . 1996. Are shade tolerance, survival, and growth linked? Low light and nitrogen effects on hardwood seedlings. Ecology 77: 841–853.
- . 1994. On the seasonal variation of local relationships between temperature, temperature range, sunshine and cloudiness. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 50: 15–22.
- , , , , , , , , . 2002. Novel loci control variation in reproductive timing in Arabidopsis thaliana in natural environments. Genetics 162: 1875–1884.
- , , . 1998. Statistical downscaling of hydrometeorological variables using general circulation model output. Journal of Hydrology 205: 1–19.
- , . 1997. Downscaling general circulation model output: a review of methods and limitations. Progress in Physical Geography 21: 530–548.
- , , . 1997. Xylem embolism in seedlings and resprouts of Adenostoma fasciculatum after fire. Australian Journal of Botany 45: 291–300.
- , , . 1985a. Leaf conductance in relation to rate of CO2 assimilation. 1. Influence of nitrogen nutrition, phosphorus nutrition, photon flux density, and ambient partial pressure of CO2 during ontogeny. Plant Physiology 78: 821–825.
- , , . 1985b. Leaf conductance in relation to rate of CO2 assimilation. 2. Effects of short-term exposure to different photon flux densities. Plant Physiology 78: 826–829.
- , , . 1985c. Leaf conductance in relation to rate of CO2 assimilation. 1. Influences of water stress and photoinhibition. Plant Physiology 78: 830–834.
- . 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16: 97–159.
- , , . 2003. Least-cost input mixtures of water and nitrogen for photosynthesis. American Naturalist 161: 98–111.
- , , , . 1997. Gas exchange, water loss and biomass production in rice and wild Oryza species in well-watered and water-limiting growth conditions. Botanica Acta 110: 32–42.
- , . 2001. The physiology of life-history trade-offs in animals. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32: 95–126.
- , , , , , . 1995. Effects of temperature on aphid phenology. Global Change Biology 1: 303–313. Direct Link:
- . 1995. Life history variation and infraspecific heterochrony in Rhinanthus glacialis (Scrophulariaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 198: 209–233.

1469-8137/asset/NPH_left.gif?v=1&s=08bb9ae88048d5716b3d3495e7b2fcfe48536ab2)
1469-8137/asset/cover.gif?v=1&s=570a3a280b205b8cd6b43e7a8ee052e7536c7006)