Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript
1461-0248/asset/olbannerleft.gif?v=1&s=3cdd97f41173d141f3f51773629729a6ad3be0ef)
1461-0248/asset/ele_centre.gif?v=1&s=8f1a28c45a6b32f9407a8bd9efb9c5b2aaffe521)
Idea and Perspective
You have full text access to this OnlineOpen article
Understanding diversity–stability relationships: towards a unified model of portfolio effects
Article first published online: 24 OCT 2012
DOI: 10.1111/ele.12019
© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS
Additional Information
How to Cite
Ecology Letters (2013) 16: 140–150
- †
Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript
Re-use of this article is permitted in accordance with the Terms and Conditions set out at http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/onlineopen#Onlineopen_Terms
Publication History
- Issue published online: 15 JAN 2013
- Article first published online: 24 OCT 2012
- Manuscript Accepted: 20 SEP 2012
- Manuscript Revised: 12 SEP 2012
- Manuscript Revised: 20 JUN 2012
- Manuscript Received: 9 MAY 2012
References
- , , , & (2004). Ecosystem stability and compensatory effects in the inner mongolia grassland. Nature, 431, 181–184.
- , , & (2004). Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature, 429, 827–833.
- , & (2011). Experimental design and the outcome and interpretation of diversity–stability relations. Oikos, 120, 399–408.
- , , , , , et al. (2012). Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature, 486, 59–67.
- , & (2001). Biodiversity may regulate the temporal variability of ecological systems. Ecol. Lett., 4, 72–85.
- , & (2006). Species richness and stand stability in conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada. Ecology, 87, 2787–2799.
- , , , , & (1998). The statistical inevitability of stability-diversity relationships in community ecology. Am. Nat., 151, 264–276.
- (2009). Why biodiversity is important to the functioning of real-world ecosystems. Front. Ecol. Environ., 7, 437–444.
- , , & (2010). Mechanisms contributing to stability in ecosystem function depend on the environmental context. Ecol. Lett., 13, 1400–1410.
- , , , , , et al. (2010). General stabilizing effects of plant diversity on grassland productivity through population asynchrony and overyielding. Ecology, 91, 2213–2220.
- , , & (2008). Functional group diversity of bee pollinators increases crop yield. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., Ser. B: Biol. Sci., 275, 2283–2291.
- , , , , , et al. (2008). The utility of covariances: a response to Ranta et al. Oikos, 117, 1912–1913.
- & (2002). Evaluating the relative strengths of biotic versus abiotic controls on ecosystem processes. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Synthesis and Perspectives (eds. Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Inchausti, P.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 47–60.
- , & (2009). Biodiversity, productivity and the temporal stability of productivity: patterns and processes. Ecol. Lett., 12, 443–451.
- & (2007). Stability and diversity of ecosystems. Science, 317, 58–62.
- & (2002). General relationships between species diversity and stability in competitive systems. Am. Nat., 159, 388–395.
- , & (1999). Stability and variability in competitive communities. Science, 286, 542–544.
- & (2009). Different effects of species diversity on temporal stability in single-trophic and multitrophic communities. Am. Nat., 174, 651–659.
- & (2003). Species interactions can explain Taylor's power law for ecological time series. Nature, 422, 65–68.
- (1994). What do species do in ecosystems? Oikos, 71, 367–374.
- & (2000). Biodiversity, stability, and productivity in competitive communities. Am. Nat., 156, 534–552.
- (2004). Variability in population and community biomass in a grassland community affected by environmental productivity and diversity. Oikos, 107, 64–71.
- & (2002). Diversity-stability relationships in community ecology: re-examination of the portfolio effect. Theor. Popul. Biol., 62, 271–279.
- (2010). From Populations to Ecosystems: Theoretical Foundations for a New Ecological Synthesis. Princeton Univ Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
- & (2008). Species synchrony and its drivers: neutral and nonneutral community dynamics in fluctuating environments. Am. Nat., 172, E48–E66.
- (1952). Portfolio selection. J. Financ., 7, 77–91.
- (1987). Mean-Variance Analysis in Portfolio Choice and Capital Markets. Basil Blackwell, New York.
- (1976). Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop Plants. USDA-ARS, Washington.
- (1985). Ecology of a grazing ecosystem – the Serengeti. Ecol. Monogr., 55, 259–294.
- , , & (2011). Multiple links between species diversity and temporal stability in bird communities across North America. Evol. Ecol. Res., 13, 361–372.
- , , , , , et al. (2001). What is the observed relationship between species richness and productivity? Ecology, 82, 2381–2396.
- , & (2005). Richness, structure and functioning in metazoan parasite communities. Oikos, 109, 447–460.
- , , , , & (2001). Phenotypic diversity and ecosystem functioning in changing environments: a theoretical framework. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 11376–11381.
- & (1996). Unconstrained parametrizations for variance-covariance matrices. Stat. Comput., 6, 289–296.
- , & (2007). Dominant species constrain effects of species diversity on temporal variability in biomass production of tallgrass prairie. Oikos, 116, 2044–2052.
- , , , , & (2008). The structure and strength of environmental variation modulate covariance patterns. A reply to Houlahan et al. 2008. Oikos, 117, 1914–1914.
- & (2000). Diversity, function and stability in parasitoid communities. Ecol. Lett., 3, 35–40.
- , & (2009). Ecological realism and mechanisms by which diversity begets stability. Oikos, 118, 819–828.
- , , , , , et al. (2011). Identifying population- and community-level mechanisms of diversity–stability relationships in experimental grasslands. J. Ecol., 99, 1460–1469.
- & (2007). Contrasting effects of diversity on the temporal stability of plant populations. Oikos, 116, 1323–1330.Direct Link:
- & (1996). A consumer's guide to evenness indices. Oikos, 76, 70–82.
- , , & (2005). Temporal stability of aquatic food webs: partitioning the effects of species diversity, species composition and enrichment. Ecol. Lett., 8, 819–828.
- (1961). Aggregation, variance and mean. Nature, 189, 732–735.
- , & (2012). Diversity and stability of herbivorous fishes on coral reefs. Ecology, 93, 891–901.
- (1999). The ecological consequences of changes in biodiversity: a search for general principles. Ecology, 80, 1455–1474.
- & (1994). Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature, 367, 363–365.
- , & (1998). Diversity-stability relationships: statistical inevitability or ecological consequence? Am. Nat., 151, 277–282.
- , & (2006). Biodiversity and ecosystem stability in a decade-long grassland experiment. Nature, 441, 629–632.
- & (2008). An empirical evaluation of the insurance hypothesis in diversity-stability models. Ecology, 89, 522–531.
- & (2003). A mechanistic examination of diversity-stability relationships in annual plant communities. Oikos, 103, 519–527.
- , & (2006). Species richness-variability relationships in multi-trophic aquatic microcosms. Oikos, 113, 55–66.
- , , , , , et al. (2006). Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science, 314, 787–790.
- & (1999). Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: the insurance hypothesis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 1463–1468.
- , & (2011). The effects of long-term fertilization on the temporal stability of alpine meadow communities. Plant Soil, 345, 315–324.