You have free access to this content

Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity – ecosystem service management

  1. Teja Tscharntke*,
  2. Alexandra M. Klein,
  3. Andreas Kruess,
  4. Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter,
  5. Carsten Thies

Article first published online: 23 JUN 2005

DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x

Issue

Ecology Letters

Ecology Letters

Volume 8, Issue 8, pages 857–874, August 2005

Additional Information

How to Cite

Tscharntke, T., Klein, A. M., Kruess, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. and Thies, C. (2005), Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity – ecosystem service management. Ecology Letters, 8: 857–874. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00782.x

Author Information

  1. Agroecology, University of Göttingen, Waldweg 26, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany

* * E-mail: ttschar@gwdg.de

Publication History

  1. Issue published online: 23 JUN 2005
  2. Article first published online: 23 JUN 2005
  3. Editor, David Andow Manuscript received 15 December 2004 First decision made 21 January 2005 Second decision made 27 April 2005 Manuscript accepted 28 April 2005

SEARCH

SEARCH BY CITATION

ARTICLE TOOLS

View Full Article (HTML) Get PDF (256K)

References

  • Aebischer, N.J. (1991). Twenty years of monitoring invertebrates and weeds in cereal fields in Sussex. In: The Ecology of Temperate Cereal Fields (eds Firbank, L.G., Carter, N., Darbyshire, J.F. & Potts, G.R.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK, pp. 305–331.
  • Altieri, M.A. (1999). The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 74, 19–31.
  • Altieri, M.A. & Letourneau, D.K. (1984). Vegetation diversity and insect pest outbreaks. CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci., 2, 131–169.
  • Andow, D.A. (1983). The extent of monoculture and insect pest populations: a comparison of wheat and cotton. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 9, 25–35.
  • Andrén, H. (1994). Effects of habitat fragmentation on birds and mammals in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat: a review. Oikos, 71, 355–366.
  • Andrén, H. (1996). Population responses to habitat fragmentation: statistical power and the random sample hypothesis. Oikos, 76, 235–242.
  • Armbrecht, I. & Perfecto, I. (2003). Litter-twig dwelling ant species richness and predation potential within a forest fragment and neighbouring coffee plantations of contrasting habitat quality in Mexico. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 97, 107–115.
  • Barbosa, P. (2003). Conservation Biological Control. Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
  • Bardgett, R.D. (2002). Causes and consequences of biological diversity in soil. Zoology, 105, 367–374.
  • Bawa, K.S., Kress, W.J., Nadkarni, N.M., Lele, S., Raven, P.H., Janzen, D.H. et al. (2004). Tropical ecosystems into the 21st century. Science, 306, 227–228.
  • Bengtsson, J., Engelhardt, K., Giller, P., Hobbie, S., Lawrence, D., Levine, J. et al. (2002). Slippin’ and slidin’ between the scales: the scaling components of biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relations. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (eds Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 209–220.
  • Bengtsson, J., Angelstam, P., Elmquvist, T., Emanuelsson, U., Forbes, C., Ihse, M. et al. (2003). Reserves, resilience and dynamic landscapes. Ambio, 32, 389–396.
  • Bengtsson, J., Ahnström, J. & Weibull, A.C. (2005). The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. J. Appl. Ecol., 42, 261–269.
    Direct Link:
  • Benton, T.G., Bryant, D.M., Cole, L. & Crick, H.Q.P. (2002). Linking agricultural practice to insect and bird populations: a historical study over three decades. J. Appl. Ecol., 39, 273–287.
    Direct Link:
  • Benton, T.G., Vickery, J.A. & Wilson, J.D. (2003). Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends Ecol. Evol., 18, 182–188.
  • Bestelmeyer, B.T., Miller, J.R. & Wiens, J.-A. (2003). Applying species diversity theory to land management. Ecol. Appl., 13, 1750–1761.
  • Bignal, E.M. & McCracken, D.I. (1996). Low-intensity farming systems in the conservation of the countryside. J. Appl. Ecol., 33, 413–424.
  • Brodmann, P.A., Wilcox, C.V. & Harrison, S. (1997). Mobile parasitoid may restrict the spatial spread of an insect outbreak. J. Anim. Ecol., 66, 65–72.
  • Bullock, J.M., Pywell, R.F., Burke, M.J.W. & Walker, K.J. (2001). Restoration of biodiversity enhances agricultural production. Ecol. Lett., 4, 185–189.
    Direct Link:
  • Cardinale, B.J., Harvey, C.T., Gross, K. & Ives, A.R. (2003). Biodiversity and biocontrol: emergent impacts of a multi-enemy assemblage on pest suppression and crop yield in an agroecosystem. Ecol. Lett., 6, 857–865.
    Direct Link:
  • Catovsky, S., Bradford, M.A. & Hector, A. (2002). Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity: implications for carbon storage. Oikos, 97, 443–448.
    Direct Link:
  • Chamberlain, D.E., Fuller, R.J., Bunce, R.G.H., Duckworth, J.C. & Shrubb, M. (2000). Changes in the abundance of farmland birds in relation to the timing of agricultural intensification in England and Wales. J. Appl. Ecol., 37, 771–778.
    Direct Link:
  • Chang, G.C. (1996). Comparison of single versus multiple species of generalist predators for biological control. Environ. Entomol., 25, 207–212.
  • Chape, S., Blyth, S., Fish, L., Fox, P. & Spalding, M. (2003). United Nations List of Protected Areas. IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Available at: http://www.unep.org/PDF/Un-list-protected-areas.pdf
  • Chapin, F.S. III, Zavaleta, E.S., Eviner, V.T., Naylor, R.L., Vitousek, P.M., Reynolds, H.L. et al. (2002). Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature, 405, 234–242.
  • Clay, K. (2004). Fungi and the food of the gods. Nature, 427, 401–402.
  • Collins, W.A. & Qualset, C.O. (1999). Biodiversity in Agroecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA.
  • Corbett, A. & Rosenheim, J.A. (1996). Impact of a natural enemy overwintering refuge and its interaction with the surrounding landscape. Ecol. Entomol., 21, 155–164.
    Direct Link:
  • Daily, G.C. (1997). Nature's Services: Social Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
  • Denys, C. & Tscharntke, T. (2002). Plant-insect communities and predator-prey ratios in field margin strips, adjacent crop fields, and fallows. Oecologia, 130, 315–324.
  • Donald, P.F. (2004). Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conserv. Biol., 18, 17–37.
    Direct Link:
  • Donald, R.F., Green, R.E. & Heath, M.F. (2001). Agricultural intensification and the collapse of Europe's farmland bird populations. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 268, 25–29.
  • Driscoll, M.J.L. & Donovan, T.M. (2004). Landscape context moderates edge effects: nesting success of wood thrushes in central New York. Conserv. Biol., 18, 1330–1338.
    Direct Link:
  • Duelli, P. & Obrist, M.K. (2003). Regional biodiversity in an agricultural landscape: the contribution of seminatural habitat islands. Basic Appl. Ecol., 4, 129–138.
  • Duffy, J.E. (2003). Biodiversity loss, trophic skew and ecosystem functioning. Ecol. Lett., 6, 680–687.
    Direct Link:
  • Dwyer, G., Dushoff, J. & Yee, S.H. (2004). The combined effects of pathogens and predators on insect outbreaks. Nature, 430, 341–345.
  • Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nyström, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B. et al. (2003). Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Front. Ecol. Environ., 1, 488–494.
  • Finke, D.L. & Denno, R.F. (2004). Predator diversity dampens trophic cascades. Nature, 429, 407–410.
  • Folke, C., Holling, C.S. & Perrings, C. (1996). Biological diversity, ecosystems and the human scale. Ecol. Appl., 6, 1018–1024.
  • Gabriel, D., Thies, T. & Tscharntke, T. (2005a). Landscape complexity promotes local diversity of arable weeds. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. (in press).
  • Gabriel, D., Roschewitz, I., Tscharntke, T. & Thies, T. (2005b). Relative importance of beta diversity at different spatial scales – plant communities in organic and conventional agriculture. J. Appl. Ecol. (in press).
  • Gaston, K.J. & Spicer, J.I. (2004). Biodiversity. An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.
  • Gathmann, A. & Tscharntke, T. (2002). Foraging ranges of solitary bees. J. Anim. Ecol., 71, 757–764.
    Direct Link:
  • Groot, A.T. & Dicke, M. (2002). Insect-resistant transgenic plants in a multi-trophic context. Plant J., 31, 387–406.
    Direct Link:
  • Gurr, G.M., Wratten, S.D. & Luna, J.M. (2003). Multi-function agricultural biodiversity: pest management and other benefits. Basic Appl. Ecol., 4, 107–116.
  • Hails, R.S. (2002). Assessing the risks associated with new agricultural practices. Nature, 418, 685–688.
  • Halaj, J. & Wise, D.H. (2001). Terrestrial trophic cascades: how much do they tickle? Am. Nat., 157, 262–281.
  • Hawkins, B.A., Mills, N.J., Jervis, M.A. & Price, P.W. (1999). Is the biological control of natural enemies a natural phenomenon? Oikos, 86, 493–506.
  • Hedlund, K., Griffiths, B., Christensen, S., Scheu, S., Setälä, H., Tscharntke, T. et al. (2004). Trophic interactions in changing landscapes: responses of soil food webs. Basic Appl. Ecol., 5, 495–503.
  • Hole, D.G., Perkins, A.J., Wilson, J.D., Alexander, I.H., Grice, P.V. & Evans, A.D. (2005). Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biol. Conserv., 122, 113–130.
  • Holt, A.R. & Gaston, K.J. (2002). Occupancy-abundance relationships and spatial distribution: a review. Basic Appl. Ecol., 3, 1–13.
  • Holt, R.D. (1996). Food webs in space: an island biogeographic perspective. In: Food Webs (eds Polis, G.A. & Winemiller, K.O.). Chapman & Hall, New York, USA, pp. 313–323.
  • Holt, R.D., Lawton, J.H., Polis, G.A. & Martinez, N.D. (1999). Trophic rank and the species-area relationship. Ecology, 80, 1495–1504.
  • Hunter, M.D. (2002). Landscape structure, habitat fragmentation, and the ecology of insects. Agric. For. Entomol., 4, 159–166.
    Direct Link:
  • Huston, M.A. & Marland, G. (2003). Carbon management and biodiversity. J. Environ. Manage., 67, 77–86.
  • Isselstein, J. (2003). Erhaltung und Förderung der Pflanzenartenvielfalt auf dem Grünland aus landwirtschaftlicher Sicht. Nova Acta Leopold., NF 87/328, 99–111.
  • Jackson, D.L. & Jackson, L.J. (2002). The Farm as Natural Habitat. Reconnecting Food Systems with Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
  • Kaule, G. (1991). Artenschutz in intensiv genutzter Landschaft. Wiss. Beitr. Univ. Halle Wittenberg, 6, 386–397.
  • Kenmore, P.E., Cariño, F.O., Perez, C.A., Dyck, V.A. & Gutierrez, A.P. (1984). Population regulation of the rice brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål) within rice fields in the Philippines. J. Plant Prot. Trop., 1, 19–37.
  • Kennedy, T.A., Naeem, S., Howe, K.M., Knops, J.M.H., Tilman, D. & Reich, P. (2002). Biodiversity as a barrier to ecological invasion. Nature, 417, 636–638.
  • Kleijn, D. & Sutherland, W.J. (2003). How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity? J. Appl. Ecol., 40, 947–969.
    Direct Link:
  • Kleijn, D., Berendse, F., Smit, R. & Gilissen, N. (2001). Agri-environment schemes do not effectively protect biodiversity in Dutch agricultural landscapes. Nature, 413, 723–725.
  • Klein, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003a). Fruit set of highland coffee depends on the diversity of pollinating bees. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B, 270, 955–961.
  • Klein, A., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003b). Flower visitation and fruit set of Coffea canephora in relation to local and regional agroforestry management. J. Appl. Ecol., 40, 837–845.
    Direct Link:
  • Krause, U. & Poehling, H.M. (1996). Overwintering, oviposition and population dynamics of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in northern Germany in relation to small and large-scale landscape structure. Acta Jutlandica, 71, 157–169.
  • Krauss, J., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003). Species richness and density of butterflies on calcareous grasslands differing in area, isolation, and landscape context. J. Biogeogr., 30, 889–900.
    Direct Link:
  • Kremen, C., Williams, N.M. & Thorp, R.W. (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U S A, 99, 16816–16821.
  • Kremen, C., Williams, N.M., Bugg, R.L., Fay, J.P. & Thorp, R.W. (2004). The area requirement of an ecosystem service: crop pollination by native bee communities in California. Ecol. Lett., 7, 1109–1119.
    Direct Link:
  • Kruess, A. (2003). Landscape structure and habitat type affect the diversity and interactions of seed-feeding and stem-boring insects on Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Ecography, 26, 283–290.
    Direct Link:
  • Kruess, A. & Tscharntke, T. (1994). Habitat fragmentation, species loss, and biological control. Science, 264, 1581–1584.
  • Kruess, A. & Tscharntke, T. (2000). Species richness and parasitism in a fragmented landscape: experiments and field studies with insects on Vicia sepium. Oecologia, 122, 129–137.
  • Landis, D.A. & Marino, P.C. (1999). Landscape structure and extra-field processes: impact on management of pests and beneficials. In: Handbook of Pest Management (ed. Ruberson, J.R.). Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, USA, pp. 79–104.
  • Laurance, W.F. (2001). Future shock: forecasting a grim fate for the earth. Trends Ecol. Evol., 16, 531–533.
  • Lepš, J. (2004). What do the biodiversity experiments tell us about consequences of plant species loss in the real world? Basic Appl. Ecol., 5, 529–534.
  • Levine, J.M., Adler, P.B. & Yelenik, S.G. (2004). A meta-analysis of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasions. Ecol. Lett., 7, 975–989.
    Direct Link:
  • Loreau, M. & Hector, A. (2001). Partitioning selection and complementarity in biodiversity experiments. Nature, 412, 72–76.
  • Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P. (2002). Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
  • Loreau, M., Mouquet, N. & Gonzales, A. (2003). Biodiversity as spatial insurance in heterogeneous landscapes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U S A, 100, 12765–12770.
  • Losey, J.E. & Denno, R.F. (1998). Positive predator-prey interactions: enhanced predation rates and synergistic suppression of aphid populations. Ecology, 79, 2143–2152.
  • Lyons, G.K. & Schwartz, M.W. (2001). Rare species loss alters ecosystem function – invasion resistance. Ecol. Lett., 4, 358–365.
    Direct Link:
  • Mäder, P., Fließbach, A., Dubois, D., Gunst, L., Fried, P. & Niggli, U. (2002). Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science, 296, 1694–1697.
  • Matson, P.A., Parton, W.J., Power, A.G. & Swift, M.J. (1997). Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science, 277, 504–509.
  • Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Brooks, T.M., Pilgrim, J.D., Konstant, W.R., de Fonseca, G.A.B. et al. (2003). Wilderness and biodiversity conservation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 10309–10313.
  • Montoya, J.M., Rodriguez, M.A. & Hawkins, B.A. (2003). Food web complexity and higher-level ecosystem services. Ecol. Lett., 6, 587–593.
    Direct Link:
  • Myers, J.H., Higgins, C. & Kovacs, E. (1989). How many species are necessary for the biological control of insects? Environ. Entomol., 18, 541–547.
  • Nabhan, G.P. & Buchmann, S.L. (1997). Services provided by pollination. In: Nature's Services: Social Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (ed. Daily, G.C.), Island Press. Washington, DC, USA, pp. 133–150.
  • van Nouhuys, S. & Hanski, I. (2002). Multitrophic interactions in space: metacommunity dynamics in fragmented landscapes. In: Multitrophic Level Interactions (eds Tscharntke, T. & Hawkins, B.A.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 124–147.
  • Östman, Ö., Ekbom, B. & Bengtsson, J. (2001). Farming practice and landscape heterogeneity influence biological control. Basic Appl. Ecol., 2, 365–371.
  • Östman, Ö., Ekbom, B. & Bengtsson, J. (2003). Yield increase attributable to aphid predation by ground-living polyphagous natural enemies in spring barley in Sweden. Ecol. Econ., 45, 149–158.
  • Paschke, M., Abs, C. & Schmid, B. (2002). Effects of population size and pollen diversity on reproductive success and offspring size in the narrow endemic Cochlearia bavarica (Brassicaceae). Am. J. Bot., 89, 1250–1259.
  • Pedersen, B.S. & Mills, N.J. (2004). Single vs. multiple introduction in biological control: the roles of parasitoid efficiency, antagonism and niche overlap. J. Appl. Ecol., 41, 973–984.
    Direct Link:
  • Perfecto, I. & Armbrecht, I. (2003). The coffee agroecosystems in the neotropics: combining ecological and economic goals. In: Tropical Agroecosystems (ed. Vandermeer, J.H.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, USA, pp. 159–194.
  • Perfecto, I., Rice, R., Greenberg, R. & van der Volt, M. (1996). Shade coffee as refuge of biodiversity. Bioscience, 46, 598–608.
  • Perfecto, I., Vandermeer, J.H., Bautista, G.L., Nunez, G.I., Greenberg, R., Bichier, P. et al. (2004). Greater predation in shaded coffee farms: the role of resident neotropical birds. Ecology, 85, 2677–2681.
  • Peters, R.H. (1983). The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.
  • Peterson, G., Allen, C.R. & Holling, C.S. (1998). Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems, 1, 6–18.
  • Pfiffner, L. & Luka, H. (2003). Effects of low-input farming systems on carabids and epigeial spiders – a paired farm approach. Basic Appl. Ecol., 4, 117–127.
  • Pickett, S.T.A. & Thompson, J.N. (1978). Patch dynamics and the design of nature reserves. Biol. Conserv., 13, 27–37.
  • Pimental, D., Stachow, U., Takacs, A., Brubaker, W., Dumas, A.R., Meaney, J.S. et al. (1992). Conserving biological diversity in agricultural/forestry systems. Bioscience, 432, 354–362.
  • Plachter, H. (1999). The contributions of cultural landscapes to nature conservation. In: Monument – Site – Cultural Landscape Exemplified by the Wachau (ed. Hajos, G.). Verlag Berger, Wien, Germany, pp. 93–115.
  • Pressey, R.L., Watts, M.E. & Barrett, T.W. (2004). Is maximizing protection the same as minimizing loss? Efficiency and retention as alternative measures of the effectiveness of proposed reserves. Ecol. Lett., 7, 1035–1046.
    Direct Link:
  • Purtauf, T., Dauber, J. & Wolters, V. (2005). The response of carabids to landscape simplification differs between trophic groups. Oecologia, 142, 458–464.
  • Putz, F.E., Blate, G.M., Redford, K.H., Fimbel, R. & Robinson, J. (2001). Tropical forest management and conservation of biodiversity: an overview. Conserv. Biol., 15, 7–20.
  • Pywell, R.F., Warman, E.A., Carvell, C., Sparks, T.H., Dicks, L.V., Bennett, D. et al. (2005). Providing foraging resources for bumblebees in intensively farmed landscapes. Biol. Conserv., 121, 479–494.
  • Rice, R.A. & Greenberg, R. (2000). Cacao cultivation and the conservation of biological diversity. Ambio, 29, 167–173.
  • Ricketts, T.H., Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, P.R. & Michener, C.D. (2004). Economic value of tropical forest to coffee production. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U S A, 101, 12579–12582.
  • Ritchie, M.E. & Olff, H. (1999). Spatial scaling laws yield a synthetic theory of biodiversity. Nature, 400, 557–560.
  • Robertson, G.P. & Swinton, S.M. (2005). Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture. Front. Ecol. Environ., 3, 38–46.
  • Robinson, R.A. & Sutherland, W.J. (2002). Post-war changes in arable farming and biodiversity in Great Britain. J. Appl. Ecol., 39, 157–176.
    Direct Link:
  • Rodriguez, M.A. & Hawkins, B.A. (2000). Diversity, function and stability in parasitoid communities. Ecol. Lett., 3, 35–40.
    Direct Link:
  • Roland, J. & Taylor, P.D. (1995). Herbivore-natural enemy interactions in fragmented and continuous forests. In: Population Dynamics: New Approaches and Synthesis (eds Cappucino, N. & Price, P.W.). Academic Press, San Diego, USA, pp. 195–208.
  • Roschewitz, I., Gabriel, D., Tscharntke, T. & Thies, C. (2005). Contrasting effects of landscape complexity on arable weed diversity in organic and conventional farming. J. Appl. Ecol. (in press).
    Direct Link:
  • Rosenheim, J.A. (1998). Higher-order predators and the regulation of insect herbivore populations. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 43, 421–447.
  • Rosenheim, J.A., Wilhoit, L.R. & Armer, C.A. (1993). Influence of intraguild predation among generalist insect predators on the suppression of an herbivore population. Oecologia, 96, 439–449.
  • Rosenzweig, M. (2003). Win-win Ecology. How the Earth's Species can Survive in the Midst of Human Enterprise. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
  • Russell, E.P. (1989). Enemies hypothesis: a review of the effect of vegetational diversity on predatory insects and parasitoids. Environ. Entomol., 18, 590–599.
  • Schellhorn, N.A. & Andow, D.A. (1999). Cannibalism and interspecific predation: role of oviposition behavior. Ecol. Appl., 9, 418–428.
  • Scheu, S. (2001). Plants and generalist predators as links between the below-ground and above-ground system. Basic Appl. Ecol., 2, 3–13.
  • Schläpfer, F., Schmid, B. & Seidl, I. (1999). Expert estimates about effects of biodiversity on ecosystem processes and services. Oikos, 84, 346–352.
  • Schmid, B. & Hector, A. (2004). The value of biodiversity experiments. Basic Appl. Ecol., 5, 535–542.
  • Schmidt, M.H. & Tscharntke, T. (2005). Landscape context of sheetweb spider population dynamics in cereal fields. J. Biogeogr., 32, 467–473.
    Direct Link:
  • Schmidt, M., Lauer, A., Purtauf, T., Thies, C., Schaefer, M. & Tscharntke, T. (2003). Relative importance of predators and parasitoids for cereal aphid control. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B, 270, 1905–1909.
  • Schmidt, M.H., Roschewitz, I., Thies, C. & Tscharntke, T. (2005). Differential effects of landscape and management on diversity and density of ground-dwelling farmland spiders. J. Appl. Ecol., 42, 281–287.
    Direct Link:
  • Schroth, G., da Fonseca, A.B., Harvey, C.A., Gascon, C., Vasconcelos, H.L. & Izac, A.M.N. (2004). Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Landscapes. Island Press, Washington, USA.
  • Schulze, C.H., Waltert, M., Kessler, P.J.A., Pitopang, R., Shahabuddin, Veddeler, D. et al. (2004). Biodiversity indicator taxa of tropical land-use systems, comparing plants, birds, and insects. Ecol. Appl., 14, 1321–1332.
  • Settle, W.H., Ariawan, H., Astuti, E.T., Cahyana, W., Hakim, A.L., Hindayana, D.H. et al. (1996). Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of generalist natural enemies and alternative prey. Ecology, 77, 1975–1988.
  • Snyder, W.E., Chang, G.C. & Prasad, R.P. (2005). Biodiversity and successful conservation biological control: is there a relationship. In: Ecology of Predator-prey Interactions (eds Barbosa, P. & Castellanos, I.). Oxford University Press, London, UK (in press).
  • Söderström, B., Svensson, B., Vessby, K. & Glimskar, A. (2001). Plants, insects and birds in semi-natural pastures in relation to local habitat and landscape factors. Biodivers. Conserv., 10, 1839–1863.
  • Sotherton, N.W. (1998). Land-use changes and the decline of farmland wildlife: an appraisal of the set-aside approach. Biol. Conserv., 83, 259–268.
  • Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2000a). Resource overlap and possible competition between honey bees and wild bees in central Europe. Oecologia, 122, 288–296.
  • Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2000b). Butterfly community structure in fragmented habitats. Ecol. Lett., 3, 449–456.
    Direct Link:
  • Steffan-Dewenter, I., Münzenberg, U. & Tscharntke, T. (2001). Pollination, seed set, and seed predation on a landscape scale. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B, 268, 1685–1690.
  • Steffan-Dewenter, I., Münzenberg, U., Bürger, C., Thies, C. & Tscharntke, T. (2002). Scale-dependent effects of landscape structure on three pollinator guilds. Ecology, 83, 1421–1432.
  • Summerville, K.S., Boulware, M.J., Veech, J.A. & Crist, T.O. (2003). Spatial variation in species diversity and composition of forest Lepidoptera in eastern deciduous forests of North America. Conserv. Biol., 17, 1045–1057.
    Direct Link:
  • Sutherland, W.J. (2002a). Restoring a sustainable countryside. Trends Ecol. Evol., 17, 148–150.
  • Sutherland, W.J. (2002b). Openness in management. Nature, 418, 834–835.
  • Swift, M.J. & Anderson, J.M. (1993). Biodiversity and ecosystem function in agricultural systems. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function (eds Schulze, E.D. & Mooney, H.A.). Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 15–41.
  • Swift, M.J., Izac, A.M.N. & van Noordwijk, M. (2004). Biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes – are we asking the right questions? Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 104, 113–134.
  • Symondson, W.O.C., Sunderland, K.D. & Greenstone, M.H. (2002). Can generalist predators be effective biocontrol agents? Annu. Rev. Entomol., 47, 561–594.
  • Thies, C. & Tscharntke, T. (1999). Landscape structure and biological control in agroecosystems. Science, 285, 893–895.
  • Thies, C., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003). Effects of landscape context on herbivory and parasitism at different spatial scales. Oikos, 101, 18–25.
    Direct Link:
  • Thies, C., Roschewitz, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2005). Landscape context of cereal aphid-parasitoid interactions. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 272, 203–210.
  • Thurnbull, L.A., Crawley, M.J. & Rees, M. (2000). Are plant populations seed-limited? A review of seed sowing experiments. Oikos, 88, 1125–1238.
  • Tilman, D., Fargione, J., Wolff, B., D'Antonio, C., Dobson, A., Howarth, R. et al. (2001). Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change. Science, 292, 281–284.
  • Tilman, D., Cassman, K.G., Matson, P.A., Naylor, R. & Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, 418, 671–677.
  • Tivy, J. (1990). Agricultural Ecology. Longman Group UK Limited, UK.
  • du Toit, J.T., Walker, B.H. & Campbell, B.M. (2004). Conserving tropical nature: current challenges for ecologists. Trends Ecol. Evol., 19, 12–17.
  • Totten, M., Pandya, S.I. & Janson-Smith, T. (2003). Biodiversity, climate, and the Kyoto protocol: risks and opportunities. Front. Ecol. Environ., 1, 262–270.
  • Tscharntke, T. (1992a). Cascade effects among four trophic levels: bird predation on galls affects density dependent parasitism. Ecology, 73, 1689–1698.
  • Tscharntke, T. (1992b). Coexistence, tritrophic interactions and density dependence in a species-rich parasitoid community. J. Anim. Ecol., 61, 59–67.
  • Tscharntke, T. (2000). Parasitoid populations in agricultural landscapes. In: Parasitoid Population Biology (eds Hochberg, M.E. & Ives, A.R.). Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA, pp. 235–253.
  • Tscharntke, T. & Brandl, R. (2004). Plant-insect interactions in fragmented landscapes. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 49, 405–430.
  • Tscharntke, T. & Kruess, A. (1999). Habitat fragmentation and biological control. In: Theoretical Approaches to Biological Control (eds Hawkins, B.A. & Cornell, H.V.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 190–205.
  • Tscharntke, T., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Kruess, A. & Thies, C. (2002a). Contribution of small habitat fragments to conservation of insect communities of grassland-cropland landscapes. Ecol. Appl., 12, 354–363.
  • Tscharntke, T., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Kruess, A. & Thies, C. (2002b). Characteristics of insect populations on habitat fragments – a mini review. Ecol. Res., 17, 229–239.
    Direct Link:
  • Tscharntke, T., Rand, T. & Bianchi, F. (2005). The landscape context of trophic interactions: insect spillover across the crop–noncrop interface. Ann. Zool. Fenn. (in press).
  • Tylianakis, J.M., Didham, R.K. & Wratten, S.D. (2004). Improved fitness of aphid parasitoids receiving resource subsidies. Ecology, 85, 658–666.
  • Vandermeer, J. & Perfecto, I. (1995). Breakfast of Biodiversity. The Truth about Rainforest Destruction. A Food First Book, The Institute for Food and Development Policy, Oakland, California, USA.
  • Vandermeer, J. & Perfecto, I. (1997). The agroecosystems: a need for the conservation biologist's lens. Conserv. Biol., 11, 591–592.
    Direct Link:
  • Vandermeer, J., van Noordwijk, M., Anderson, J., Ong, C. & Perfecto, I. (1998). Global change and multi-species agroecosystems: concepts and issues. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 67, 1–22.
  • Vandermeer, J., Lawrence, D., Symstad, A. & Hobbie, S. (2002). Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning in managed ecosystems. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (eds Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 157–168.
  • Wardle, D.A. & van der Putten, W.H. (2002). Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and above-ground-below-ground linkages. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning (eds Loreau, M., Naeem, S. & Inchausti, P.). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 157–168.
  • Wardle, D.A., Huston, M.A., Grime, J.P., Berendse, F., Garnier, F., Lauenroth, W.K. et al. (2000). Biodiversity and ecosystem function: an issue in ecology. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am., 7, 235–239.
  • Weibull, A.C. & Östman, Ö. (2003). Species composition in agroecosystems: the effect of landscape, habitat, and farm management. Basic Appl. Ecol., 4, 349–361.
  • Westphal, C., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003). Mass-flowering crops enhance pollinator densities at a landscape scale. Ecol. Lett., 6, 961–965.
    Direct Link:
  • Wilby, A. & Thomas, M.B. (2002). Natural enemy diversity and pest control: patterns of pest emergence with agricultural intensification. Ecol. Lett., 5, 353–360.
    Direct Link:
  • Williams, P. (2005). Does specialisation explain rarity and decline among British bumblebees? A response to Goulson et al. Biol. Conserv., 122, 33–43.
  • Wunderle, J.M. (1998). Avian resource use in Dominican shade coffee plantation. Wilson Ornithol. Soc., 110, 271–281.
  • Zavaleta, E.S. & Hulvey, K.B. (2004). Realistic species losses disproportionally reduce grassland resistance to biological invaders. Science, 306, 1175–1177.
View Full Article (HTML) Get PDF (256K)