Cancer treatment and survivorship statistics, 2014

National Cancer Data Base

The NCDB is a hospital-based cancer registry jointly sponsored by the American Cancer Society and the American College of Surgeons, and includes approximately 70% of all malignant cancers in the United States from more than 1400 facilities accredited by the American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer (CoC).[11, 12] NCDB treatment data were analyzed for 2011 except for cancer of the testis. Aggregated data for 2007 to 2011 were used to describe treatment patterns for seminomatous and nonseminomatous testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) because there are fewer cases for these specific sites.

The NCDB is a hospital-based registry, thus the data are not population-based and may not be representative of all patients with cancer treated in the United States. Further, data are collected for patients diagnosed or treated at CoC-accredited facilities, which are more likely to be located in larger and more urban areas compared to non-CoC-accredited facilities.[13] In addition, cancers that are commonly diagnosed and treated in nonhospital settings (eg, melanoma, prostate cancer, and non–muscle-invasive bladder cancer) are less likely to be captured by the NCDB.

Despite these limitations, studies have shown that disease severity and treatment patterns by clinical and sociodemographic factors for common cancer sites are remarkably similar to those found in population-based SEER registries. For example, rates of chemotherapy receipt among patients aged 65 years and older with breast cancer in the NCDB are similar to those in a published SEER-Medicare study.[14, 15]

It is also important to note that in the 2011 NCDB data release, many common targeted therapy drugs are classified as chemotherapy. For this report, we also include drugs classified as immunotherapy in the chemotherapy category. Chemotherapy does not include hormone therapy. For more information regarding the classification of anticancer drugs into the categories of chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hormonal therapy, and targeted therapy, see the SEER-Rx Web site (seer.cancer.gov/tools/seerrx). Our analysis of treatment patterns does not include diagnostic procedures. Methods of drug delivery are not available in the NCDB. More information on the NCDB can be found at their Web site (facs.org/cancer/ncdb).

SEER-Medicare database

The SEER-Medicare linked database is a large, integrated, population-based cancer registry and claims data set that was used to access information unavailable in the NCDB, such as the use of specific chemotherapeutic agents.[16] The SEER program collects clinical, demographic, and cause-of-death information for individuals with cancer from 18 registries, capturing approximately 28% of the US population. Medicare is the primary health insurer for 97% of the US population aged 65 years and older. Medicare data include inpatient, outpatient, physician services, home health, durable medical equipment, and prescription drug claims files. The linkage of these 2 data sources is the collaborative effort of the NCI, the SEER registries, and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. More information on the SEER-Medicare database can be found at their Web site (appliedresearch.cancer.gov/seermedicare/).

SEER-Stat database

The SEER-Stat database was used for the analysis of localized prostate cancer treatment patterns by disease severity and age. Prostate cancer is commonly diagnosed in nonhospital settings, and thus data are less complete for this site in the NCDB. We analyzed data from the 18 SEER registries for prostate cancer patients diagnosed during 2009 to 2010; cases with positive lymph nodes or metastases were excluded.[9] Disease severity was based on risk categories as described in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network Clinical Practice Guidelines for Prostate Cancer.[17] Use of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) was not included in the analysis because this information is not collected by the SEER registries.

Treatment and survival

Surgical treatment of breast cancer involves breast-conserving surgery (BCS) or mastectomy. When BCS is appropriately used for localized or regional cancers and followed with radiation to the breast, long-term survival is the same as with mastectomy.[18] However, some patients require mastectomy because of large or multiple tumors. Increasingly, BCS-eligible women elect mastectomy for a variety of reasons, including reluctance to undergo radiation therapy after BCS or fear of recurrence.[19] Younger women (those aged 40 years and younger) and patients with larger and/or more aggressive tumors are more likely to elect to undergo mastectomy.[19, 20] Women who undergo mastectomy may have breast reconstruction, either with a saline or silicone implant, tissue flap, or combination thereof. Although reported rates of breast reconstruction in the United States vary widely, a recent study found that among women with employer-based health insurance, rates have increased from 46% in 1998 to 63% in 2007.[21] Women who are younger, white, have private insurance, or have a higher level of education or income are more likely to undergo reconstruction.[22] Studies suggest that reconstruction is offered to only a fraction of eligible women.[22]

Among women diagnosed with early-stage (stage I or II) breast cancer, 59% undergo BCS, 36% undergo mastectomy, 4% receive radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy without surgery, and approximately 1% do not receive any of these treatments (Fig. 4). The majority of women with early-stage breast cancer who undergo BCS receive adjuvant treatment; 56% are treated with radiation therapy alone and approximately 29% receive both radiation therapy and chemotherapy (with or without targeted therapy).[11] Among women with late-stage (stage III or IV) breast cancer, 13% receive BCS, 59% undergo mastectomy, 16% receive radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy without surgery, and 10% do not receive any of these treatments. The majority of women with early-stage breast cancer who undergo BCS receive adjuvant treatment; 56% are treated with radiation therapy alone and approximately 29% receive both radiation therapy and chemotherapy (with or without targeted therapy). Most patients diagnosed with late-stage disease receive chemotherapy, sometimes along with surgery and other therapies.

The overall 5-year relative survival rate for patients with female breast cancer has improved from 74.8% in 1975 through 1977 to 90.3% in 2003 through 2009.[7] This increase is due largely to improvements in treatment (ie, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted drugs) and to earlier diagnosis as a result of the widespread use of mammography for breast cancer screening.[23] The 10-year and 15-year relative survival rates for breast cancer are 83.1% and 77.8%, respectively.

The 5-year relative survival rate for women diagnosed with localized breast cancer is 98.6%; for those with regional and distant-stage breast cancer, the survival rate declines to 84.4% and 24.3%, respectively.[7] In addition to stage of disease, cancer-related factors that influence survival include tumor grade, hormone receptor status, and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status.

Black women are less likely than white women to be diagnosed with local stage breast cancer (52% vs 62%) and have lower rates of survival than white women within each disease stage.[7] The reasons for these differences are complex but may be explained in large part by socioeconomic factors, less access and use of quality medical care among black women, and biological differences in cancers (eg, a higher incidence of triple-negative cancers among black women).[24-26]

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Lymphedema of the arm is a side effect of breast cancer surgery and radiation therapy that occurs in approximately 20% of women who undergo axillary lymph node dissection and 6% of women who undergo sentinel lymph node biopsy.[27] It is important for lymphedema to be diagnosed as early as possible to optimize treatment and slow progression.[28] There are a number of effective therapies for lymphedema and some evidence suggests that upper-body exercise and physical therapy may reduce risk and lessen the severity of this condition.[28, 29]

Other long-term local effects of surgery and radiation therapy include numbness, tingling, or tightness in the chest wall, arms, or shoulders. Studies have shown that between 25% and 60% of women develop chronic pain after breast cancer treatment, although the pain is usually not severe.[30-33] In addition, treatment with chemotherapy can lead to impaired fertility and premature menopause, which increases the risk of osteoporosis.[34] Anthracyclines and HER2-targeted drugs can lead to cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure. Treatment with aromatase inhibitors, which is generally reserved for postmenopausal women, can also cause osteoporosis, as well as myalgia and arthralgia.[35] Patients with breast cancer may also experience cognitive impairments and chronic fatigue.[36]

Treatment and survival

Pediatric cancers can be treated with a combination of therapies (surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy) chosen based on the type and stage of cancer. Treatment often occurs in specialized centers and is coordinated by a team of experts, including pediatric oncologists, surgeons, nurses, social workers, psychologists, and others.

Childhood cancer survival rates vary considerably depending on cancer type, patient age, and other characteristics. The 5-year relative survival rate for children aged birth to 14 years is 97.5% for patients with retinoblastoma, 96.9% for patients with HL, 89.7% for patients with Wilms tumor, 88.8% for patients with ALL, 87.4% for patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), 78.1% for patients with neuroblastoma, 72.1% for patients with brain and CNS tumors, 70.9% for patients with osteosarcoma, and 66.7% for patients with rhabdomyosarcoma.[7] The overall 5-year relative survival rate for all childhood cancers combined has improved markedly over the past 30 years due to new and improved treatments, from 57.9% for cases diagnosed between 1975 and 1979 to 83.1% for cases diagnosed during 2003 through 2009.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Children diagnosed with cancer may experience treatment-related side effects not only during treatment but many years after diagnosis as well. Aggressive treatments used for childhood cancers, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, resulted in a number of late effects, including an increased risk of subsequent cancers. Even many newer less toxic therapies increase the risk of serious health conditions in long-term childhood cancer survivors.[38] Hudson et al recently reported that among childhood cancer survivors diagnosed and treated between 1962 and 2001, 65% of those who were exposed to treatments with potential pulmonary toxicity experienced pulmonary dysfunction and 57% of those exposed to potentially cardiotoxic therapies experienced cardiac abnormalities.[38] The risk of developing subsequent neoplasms is increased among survivors treated with radiotherapy, alkylating agents, anthracyclines, and epipodophyllotoxins, with genetic predisposition also playing a role. A large study of pediatric cancer survivors found that almost 10% developed a second cancer over the 30-year period after their initial diagnosis, most commonly female breast, thyroid, and brain and other CNS tumors.[39]

The Children's Oncology Group, an NCI-supported clinical trials group that cares for more than 90% of US children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer, has developed long-term follow-up guidelines for the screening and management of late effects in survivors of childhood cancer. It is important that survivors of pediatric cancers are monitored for long-term and late effects. For more information on childhood cancer management, see the Children's Oncology Group Web site (survivorshipguidelines.org).

Cancers occurring in adolescents (those aged 15 to 19 years) are associated with a unique set of issues. Adolescents diagnosed with cancers that are more common in childhood are usually most appropriately treated at pediatric facilities or by pediatric specialists rather than by specialists in adult care. In addition, childhood cancer centers are more likely than adult cancer centers to offer patients the opportunity to participate in clinical trials.[40] Studies have shown that for adolescent patients diagnosed with ALL, pediatric protocols result in better outcomes than adult protocols.[41, 42] For adolescent patients diagnosed with cancers that are more common among adults, such as melanoma and testicular and thyroid cancers, treatment by adult-care specialists is more appropriate.[43] Although there have been less dramatic improvements in survival for cancers among adolescents compared with many childhood cancers, and even for some cancers in adults,[44] the current 5-year relative survival rate for adolescents (84.5%) is similar to that for children (83.1%).[7]

Treatment and survival

Treatment for cancers of the colon and rectum varies by tumor location and stage at diagnosis (Figs. 5 and 6).[38] Surgery to remove the cancer (typically along with nearby lymph nodes) is the most common treatment of early-stage (stage I and II) colon (98%) and rectal (88%) cancer. A colostomy is more commonly used for rectal cancer (29%) than for colon cancer (12%) and is often temporary.[16]

For patients with stage III and some stage II colon cancers, surgery is followed by approximately 6 months of chemotherapy to lower the risk of recurrence. In contrast, patients with stage II and III rectal cancers are often treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy combined with radiation therapy.

Chemotherapy is often the main treatment of patients with advanced colon and rectal cancers. A growing number of targeted drugs are also available to treat metastatic colorectal cancer.

The 1-year and 5-year relative survival rates for patients with colorectal cancer are 83.4% and 64.9%, respectively. Survival continues to decline to 58.3% at 10 years after diagnosis. When colorectal cancers are detected at a localized stage, the 5-year relative survival rate is 90.3%. After the cancer has spread regionally to involve adjacent organs or lymph nodes, the 5-year survival rate drops to 70.4%. When the disease has spread to distant organs, the 5-year survival rate is 12.5%.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Most long-term survivors of colorectal cancer report a psychological quality of life comparable to that of the general population, but a somewhat lower physical quality of life.[46] Bowel dysfunction is particularly common, especially among those diagnosed with late-stage cancer, and some patients must live with a permanent ostomy. Individuals treated with radiation therapy to the pelvis are at risk of bladder problems. Cancer recurrence is common among colorectal survivors; approximately one-half of patients treated with surgery will experience a recurrence within the first 3 years after surgery.[47] Colorectal cancer survivors are also at increased risk of second primary cancers of the colon and rectum, as well as other cancer sites, especially those within the digestive system.[48]

Treatment and survival for the most common types of leukemia and lymphoma

Acute myeloid leukemia

Chemotherapy is the standard treatment of patients with AML (Fig. 7), although many older adults, among whom the disease is most common, are not able to tolerate the most aggressive and potentially curative protocols. Some patients also undergo stem cell transplantation and some receive radiation therapy (often as part of a conditioning regimen prior to stem cell transplantation).

Approximately 60% to 70% of adults with AML can expect to attain complete remission status after the first phase of treatment (induction), and more than 25% of adults survive 3 or more years and may be cured.[49] Approximately 3% of AML cases occur in children aged 14 years and younger, for whom the prognosis is substantially better than that for adults. Survival for AML decreases markedly with age at diagnosis. The 5-year relative survival rate for children and adolescents (aged birth-19 years) is 62.8%, but declines to 48.8%, 28.0%, and 5.4% for patients ages 20 to 49 years, 50 to 64 years, and 65 years or older, respectively.

Chronic myeloid leukemia

CML (also called chronic myelogenous leukemia) is most common in adults, but approximately 2% of cases are diagnosed in children and adolescents. In large part due to the discovery and widespread use of BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitors, the 5-year survival rate for patients with CML increased from 30.6% for cases diagnosed during 1990 through 1992 to 58.6% for those diagnosed during 2003 through 2009.

Acute lymphocytic leukemia

Although ALL (also called acute lymphoblastic leukemia) is the most common type of leukemia diagnosed in children, nearly one-half (49%) of cases are diagnosed in patients aged 20 years and older. Chemotherapy is the standard treatment of patients with ALL (Fig. 7). Approximately 20% to 30% of adult ALL cases and less than 5% of childhood cases are Philadelphia chromosome positive and may benefit from the addition of a BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitor to chemotherapy.[50, 51] More than 95% of children and about 80% to 90% of adults with ALL attain remission.[52] Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation is recommended for some patients whose leukemia has high-risk characteristics at diagnosis and for those who develop recurrence after remission. It may also be used if the leukemia does not go into remission after successive courses of induction chemotherapy.

Survival rates for patients with ALL have increased significantly over the past 3 decades, particularly among children. For example, the 5-year relative survival rate for children (those aged birth to 14 years) increased from 57.2% in the mid-1970s to 91.7% in 2003 through 2009.[7] Previous studies have also documented lower survival rates for black children with ALL compared with white children.[53] Notably, the black-white survival disparity in children and adolescents has diminished in recent years from a 21% difference in 5-year survival for ALL during 1980 through 1984 (47% vs 68%, respectively) to a 6% difference during 2003 through 2009 (84% vs 90%, respectively).[37] Survival declines with increasing age; the current 5-year survival rate is 41.8% for individuals aged 20 to 39 years, 28.2% for those aged 40 to 64 years, and 11.8% for those aged 65 years and older.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia

CLL is the most common type of leukemia in adults; 95% of cases are diagnosed in individuals aged 50 years and older (Fig. 3). Treatment is not likely to cure CLL and it is not clear that it extends survival; therefore, it is generally reserved for patients who are symptomatic or who have cytopenias or other complications of their disease. For patients with uncomplicated early disease, active surveillance is a common initial treatment approach. It should be noted that the low rates of chemotherapy shown for adult CLL in Figure 7 are the first course of treatment and do not reflect those patients who receive chemotherapy later in the course of disease. For patients with more advanced disease, available treatments include chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, radiation therapy, and splenectomy. The overall 5-year relative survival rate for patients with CLL is 79.2%; however, there is a large variation in survival among individual patients, ranging from several months to a normal life expectancy. Approximately 5% to 10% of patients with CLL also develop diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), a process known as “Richter transformation.”[54]

Hodgkin lymphoma

HL can be diagnosed at any age, but is most common in early adulthood (60% of patients are diagnosed between ages 15 and 49 years) (Fig. 3). There are 2 major types of HL. Classic HL (CHL) is the most common and is characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells. Nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL (NLPHL), which is characterized by “popcorn cells,” comprises only 5% of cases.[55] NLPHL is a more indolent disease with a generally favorable prognosis.[56]

CHL is generally treated with multiagent chemotherapy (81%), sometimes in combination with radiation therapy (32% among chemotherapy recipients), although the use of radiation therapy is declining.[11] If these treatments are not effective, stem cell transplantation may be an option. For patients with NLPHL, radiation alone may be appropriate for those with early-stage disease. For those with later-stage disease, chemotherapy plus radiation therapy, as well as the monoclonal antibody rituximab, may be recommended.

The 5-year relative survival rate for all HL combined has improved from 71.8% during 1975 through 1977 to 87.6% during 2003 through 2009. The current 1-year and 10-year survival rates are 92.0% and 80.2%, respectively. The overall 5-year survival rate is 95.6% for NLPHL and 84.6% for CHL.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

The most common types of NHL are DLBCL, representing 37% of cases, and follicular lymphoma, representing 20% of cases.[55] DLBCLs grow quickly, yet most patients with localized disease and approximately 50% of patients with advanced-stage disease are cured.[57, 58] In contrast, follicular lymphomas tend to grow slowly and often do not require treatment until the patient becomes symptomatic; however, many are not curable. Some cases of follicular lymphoma transform into DLBCL.[59] Burkitt lymphoma is a much less common and very aggressive NHL subtype, although it is often curable with intense treatment.[60]

The first course of treatment for all NHL subtypes combined is usually chemotherapy, either alone (57%) or in combination with radiation therapy (12%); radiation therapy without chemotherapy (7%) is used less often (Fig. 8). Approximately 8% of patients receive surgical treatment only and 16% of patients receive none of these treatments. A monoclonal antibody such as rituximab is often given along with chemotherapy for the treatment of B-cell lymphomas.

The 5-year relative survival rate for all cases of NHL combined is 69.0%; by subtype, the 5-year survival rate is 85.4% for follicular lymphoma, 60.5% for DLBCL, and 57.1% for Burkitt lymphoma.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Patients treated for leukemia and lymphoma can experience a number of significant late effects. One of the most serious potential long-term side effects of ALL therapy in children is the development of AML, which occurs in approximately 5% of patients who receive epipodophyllotoxins (eg, etoposide or teniposide) or alkylating agents (eg, cyclophosphamide or chlorambucil).[61] In the past, some children with ALL received cranial radiation therapy to reduce the risk of CNS recurrence; however, this treatment can cause long-term cognitive deficits and is rarely used today.[62] Chest radiation for HL increases the risk of cardiac dysfunction (eg, valvular heart disease and coronary artery disease), as well as breast cancer among women. Patients with HL and NHL are commonly treated with anthracyclines, which can also be cardiotoxic. Some leukemia and lymphoma survivors have problems with recurrent infections and anemia, which may require blood transfusions.

Treatment and survival

Lung cancer is classified as small cell lung cancer (13% of cases) or non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) (87%) for the purposes of treatment.[55] Most patients with small cell lung cancer receive chemotherapy. In addition, patients with limited-stage disease often receive concurrent radiation therapy. For patients with early-stage NSCLC, the majority of patients (68%) undergo surgery and approximately 16% also receive chemotherapy or radiation therapy (Fig. 9). Most patients with advanced-stage NSCLC are treated with chemotherapy alone (18%), radiation therapy alone (15%), or a combination thereof (33%). The targeted therapy bevacizumab is used by 15% of chemotherapy recipients in the SEER-Medicare database.[16] Other targeted drugs used to treat NSCLC include erlotinib and afatinib, which target the epidermal growth factor receptor protein, and crizotinib, which targets cells with activating ALK mutations.

The majority of lung cancers (57%) are diagnosed at a distant stage because early disease is typically asymptomatic; only 15% of cases are diagnosed at a local stage.[7] The 1-year relative survival rate for lung cancer increased from 34.4% in 1975 through 1977 to 44.7% in 2006 through 2009, largely due to improvements in surgical techniques and chemoradiation. The 5-year survival rate is 53.5% for cases detected when the disease is still localized, 26.1% for patients with regional disease, and 3.9% for patients with distant-stage disease. The overall 5-year survival rate for small cell lung cancer (6.3%) is lower than that for NSCLC (18.2%).

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Many lung cancer survivors have impaired lung function, especially if they have undergone surgery. In some cases, respiratory therapy and medications can improve fitness and allow survivors to resume normal daily activities. Lung cancer survivors, particularly those who continue to smoke, are at an increased risk of additional smoking-related diseases including second cancers, especially in the lung, head and neck, and urinary tract. Survivors may feel stigmatized because of the social perception that lung cancer is a self-inflicted disease, which can be particularly difficult for lung cancer survivors who never smoked.[64]

Treatment and survival

Surgery is the primary treatment of most melanomas. Less than 3% of all patients with melanoma undergo radiation therapy.[9] However, nearly one-half (45%) of patients with metastatic disease who receive either chemotherapy or immunotherapy also undergo radiation therapy.[11] Patients with stage III melanomas are often offered adjuvant immunotherapy with interferon for approximately one year; however, this treatment has side effects that make it very difficult to tolerate. Treatment for patients with stage IV melanoma has changed in recent years and typically includes immunotherapy or targeted therapy drugs. The immunotherapy drug ipilimumab has been shown to extend survival in patients with advanced melanoma.[65] Approximately one-half of patients with melanoma have mutations in the BRAF gene; several targeted drugs have been shown to be helpful against these melanomas.[66, 67]

The 5-year and 10-year relative survival rates for patients with melanoma are 91.3% and 89.3%, respectively. For those with localized melanoma, the 5-year survival rate is 98.3%; 5-year survival rates for patients with regional-stage and distant-stage disease are 62.4% and 16.0%, respectively.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Depending on the size and location of the melanoma, removal of these cancers can be disfiguring. Men and women who are survivors of melanoma are nearly 13 times and 16 times, respectively, more likely than the general population to develop additional melanomas due to skin type and other genetic risk factors and/or overexposure to ultraviolet radiation.[68] Approximately 10% to 15% of patients treated with ipilimumab experience serious autoimmune-related side effects, which can lead to death.[65] Patients treated with BRAF inhibitors have an increased risk of developing additional skin cancers.

Treatment and survival

Treatment options vary depending on disease severity, as well as patient characteristics such as age and comorbidity and personal preferences. Figure 10 shows primary treatment by disease severity among men with localized prostate cancer diagnosed during 2009 through 2011 in the 18 SEER registries. Data regarding the use of ADT are not available in the SEER data and therefore are not included. Across all risk categories, younger men (those aged younger than 65 years) are more likely to be treated with radiation therapy, radical prostatectomy, or a combination thereof, whereas the majority of men aged 75 years or older did not receive either of these treatments.

Survival rates are favorable for patients with early-stage disease treated with surgery or radiation therapy; however, both are associated with risks of physical impairments (sexual, urinary, and bowel).[69-71] Active surveillance rather than immediate treatment is a reasonable and commonly recommended approach, especially for older men and those with less aggressive tumors and/or more serious comorbid conditions.[72-74] ADT, chemotherapy, bone-directed therapy (such as zoledronic acid or denosumab), radiation therapy, or a combination of these treatments are used to treat patients with more advanced disease. Newer treatments approved in recent years to treat patients with advanced prostate cancer that is no longer responding to traditional hormone therapy include the dendritic cell vaccine sipuleucel-T (Provenge; Dendreon Corporation, Seattle, Wash) and newer forms of hormone therapy include abiraterone (Zytiga; Janssen Biotech, Inc, Horsham, Pa) and enzalutamide (Xtandi; Astellas Pharma Inc, Northbrook, Ill), and Radium-223 (Xofigo; Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc, Whippany, NJ), a form of radiation therapy that is given as an injection into the blood.[75-79]

Most (93%) prostate cancers are discovered in the local or regional stages, for which the 5-year relative survival rate approaches 100%. Over the past 25 years, the 5-year relative survival rate for all stages combined has increased from 67.8% to 99.7%. The 10-year and 15-year relative survival rates are 98.8% and 94.3%, respectively.

Common side effects of treatment

Many prostate cancer survivors who have been treated with surgery or radiation therapy experience urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, and bowel complications.[80] Patients receiving hormonal treatment may experience loss of libido; erectile dysfunction; menopausal-like symptoms including hot flashes, night sweats, and irritability; and gynecomastia. ADT also increases the risk of anemia, osteoporosis, and metabolic syndrome.[81-85] Although some studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular disease or death associated with the use of hormone therapy, the evidence is inconsistent.[83, 84, 86] Careful monitoring of cardiovascular risk factors and serum glucose is recommended in men who have received ADT.[87]

Treatment and survival

Treatment of almost all TGCTs begins with orchiectomy. After orchiectomy, patients with early-stage seminomas are often treated with radiation therapy (42%) or active surveillance, with chemotherapy used less often (Fig. 11). Over the last decade, postsurgery active surveillance has become an increasingly preferred management option for patients with stage I seminomas and long-term study results support this treatment strategy.[88] Patients with late-stage seminomas are generally treated with surgery and chemotherapy (68%) (Fig. 11). Among patients with early-stage nonseminomas, approximately 22% undergo retroperitoneal lymph node dissection, which is recommended to reduce the likelihood of recurrence (Fig. 12). Patients with late-stage nonseminomas are treated with orchiectomy followed by chemotherapy, and some require additional surgery after the completion of chemotherapy.

Most testicular cancers are detected early; 69% of cases are diagnosed at a localized stage. For all testicular cancers combined, the 5-year relative survival rates are 99.1%, 95.8%, and 73.8% for tumors diagnosed at a localized, regional, or distant stage, respectively.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Survivors of testicular cancer are often concerned about sexual and reproductive impairments. Although most men who have one healthy testicle produce sufficient male hormones and sperm to continue sexual relations and father children, sperm banking is recommended prior to treatment. Retroperitoneal lymph node dissection can lead to retrograde ejaculation, making unassisted reproduction impossible. Men treated with chemotherapy have increased risks of coronary artery disease as they age, and should be particularly mindful of risk factors such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, and smoking.[89] Men who have bilateral tumors have both testes removed and require lifelong testosterone supplementation.

Treatment and survival

Most thyroid cancers are either papillary or follicular carcinoma, both of which are highly curable. Approximately 3% of thyroid cancers are medullary or anaplastic carcinoma, which are more difficult to treat because they grow more quickly, have often metastasized by the time they are diagnosed, and do not respond to radioactive iodine treatment.[55] The first choice of treatment in nearly all cases is surgery, with most patients undergoing total (84%) or partial thyroidectomy (13%).[11] Approximately 56% of surgically treated patients with papillary or follicular thyroid cancer receive radioactive iodine (I-131) after surgery to destroy any remaining thyroid tissue.[91] After total thyroidectomy, thyroid hormone therapy is required and is often prescribed in a dosage sufficient to inhibit pituitary production of thyroid-stimulating hormone to decrease the likelihood of recurrence.

Total thyroidectomy is the primary treatment of patients with medullary thyroid cancer. When the tumor is extensive or cannot be completely resected, radiation therapy may be given after surgery to try to reduce the chance of local recurrence. Targeted drugs, including vandetanib and cabozantinib, can be useful in treating patients with metastatic disease. Anaplastic thyroid cancers are often widespread at the time of diagnosis; in selected cases, radiation therapy alone or in combination with chemotherapy may be used to try and reduce the size of the tumor and allow for surgical removal. Chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy may be used to treat patients with advanced disease, though the prognosis is poor.

Localized disease is diagnosed in 59% of male patients and 71% of female patients.[7] The 5-year relative survival rate for all patients with thyroid cancer is 97.7%. However, survival varies by stage of disease, age at diagnosis, and histologic type. The 5-year survival rate is 99.9%, 97.4%, and 55.0% for patients with localized, regional, and distant-stage disease, respectively. For all stages combined, survival declines with age; rates are 99.6% for patients aged 45 years and younger and 84.9% for those aged 75 years and older.

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Patients who undergo total thyroidectomy require thyroid replacement therapy, and thyroid hormone levels must be monitored to prevent hypothyroidism and problems such as cold intolerance and weight gain. Surgical removal of the thyroid gland can damage the underlying parathyroid glands, leading to issues with calcium metabolism. Surgery can also damage nerves to the larynx and lead to voice changes. Treatment with radioactive iodine can affect fertility and may be linked to an increased risk of leukemia.[92] Among patients believed to be cured after treatment, approximately 10% to 30% experience recurrence or distant metastases.[93] Approximately 25% of medullary thyroid cancers occur as part of a genetic syndrome (multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2), and therefore patients should be screened for other syndromic cancers and referred for genetic counseling and possible testing.[94]

Treatment and survival

Treatment for urinary bladder cancer varies by stage and patient age. Among patients with non–muscle-invasive cancers, most patients are diagnosed and treated with transurethral resection of the bladder tumor (TURBT), which may be followed by chemotherapy (18%) or intravesical biological therapy with bacillus Calmette-Guerin (25%).[11] Although the NCDB does not distinguish between systemic and intravesical chemotherapy, based on treatment guidelines it is likely that virtually all of the chemotherapy represents intravesical administration.

Among patients with muscle-invasive disease, 42% undergo cystectomy, and nearly one-half of these patients also receive chemotherapy or radiation therapy (Fig. 13). Approximately 9% of patients undergo TURBT combined with chemotherapy and radiation therapy. In appropriately selected cases, TURBT followed by combined chemotherapy and radiation therapy is reported to be as effective as cystectomy at preventing recurrence.[96-98] Chemotherapy is usually the first treatment among patients with advanced bladder cancer. For locally advanced cancers, patients may be offered chemotherapy either alone (32%) or in combination with radiation therapy (11%) before cystectomy.[11]

For all stages combined, the 5-year relative survival rate is 77.9%. Survival declines to 71.4% at 10 years and 66.5% at 15 years after diagnosis. When in situ urinary bladder cancer is diagnosed (51% of cases), the 5-year survival rate is 96.4%. Patients with invasive tumors diagnosed at a localized stage have a 5-year survival rate of 70.2%; 35% of cancers are detected at this early stage. For those with regional and distant-stage disease, the 5-year survival rate is 33.0% and 5.4%, respectively.

Common concerns of urinary bladder cancer survivors

Bladder cancer are actively monitored after treatment because of the high rate of recurrence (estimates range from 50%-90%).[99, 100] Surveillance can include screening for urine biomarkers and cytology, as well as cystoscopy. Patients requiring repeated bladder surgeries can end up with a small or scarred bladder, which may lead to urinary frequency or other problems. Patients undergoing cystectomy require urinary diversion with either construction of a neobladder with urethral anastomosis or a urostomy. A recent study reported comparable outcomes with both techniques; however, a neobladder remains less common than urostomy (9% vs 91%).[101] The neobladder procedure is more common among patients who are male, younger, healthy, or treated at larger higher-volume hospitals.[101]

Treatment and survival

Uterine cancers are usually treated with surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and/or chemotherapy, depending on stage of disease and histologic type (Fig. 14). Surgery alone, consisting of hysterectomy (often along with bilateral salpingo-oopherectomy), is used to treat 72% of patients with early-stage disease. Approximately 22% of early-stage disease is high-risk disease and is treated with radiation either alone, or in combination with chemotherapy, in addition to surgery. The majority (64%) of women with advanced disease undergo surgery followed by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy. Clinical trials are currently assessing the most appropriate regimen of radiation therapy and chemotherapy for women with metastatic or recurrent uterine cancer.

Most cancers of the uterine corpus (68%) are diagnosed at an early stage, usually because of postmenopausal bleeding. The 1-year and 5-year relative survival rates for patients with cancer of the uterine corpus are 92.1% and 81.5%, respectively. The 5-year survival rate is 95.3% for localized disease, 67.5% for regional disease, and 16.9% for distant-stage disease. The overall 5-year survival for white women (84%) is 23% higher than that for black women (61%).[7] Higher body weight adversely affects endometrial cancer survival, whereas physical activity is associated with improved survival.[103]

Common long-term side effects of treatment

Any hysterectomy causes infertility. Bilateral oophorectomy will cause menopause in premenopausal women, which can lead to symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and osteoporosis. Long-term side effects of radiation therapy for uterine cancer can include bladder and bowel dysfunction, as well as vaginal dryness and stenosis. Sexual problems are commonly reported among uterine cancer survivors.[104] Pelvic lymphadenectomy can lead to lower extremity lymphedema, particularly for women who also receive radiation therapy.[105]