This study presents a simplified theoretical model to predict the ignition of FRP composites of general thermal thickness (GTT) subjected to one-sided heating. A simplified GTT heat transfer model to predict the surface temperature of GTT composite panels was developed, and the exposed surface temperature was used as ignition criterion. To validate the GTT model, intermediate scale calorimeter fire tests of E-glass fiber reinforced polyester composite panels at three heat flux levels were performed to obtain intermediate-scale fire testing data in a controlled condition with well-defined thermal boundary conditions. The GTT model was also verified by using results from finite element modeling predictions. This model can be used to estimate the surface temperature increase, time-to-ignition, and mass loss of FRP composites for fire safety design and analysis. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A series of experiments designed to characterize fire behavior on flat 1.2 m × 1.2 m samples of commercial non-fire-retarded flexible polyurethane foam were performed. Time-resolved heat release and mass loss rates were measured. Experimental parameters varied, including foam thickness (5.1 and 10.2 cm) and burning angle (+25°, +12.5°, 0°, −12.5°, and −25°). Polyurethane foam is typically produced by reacting a multifunctional isocyanate with a polyol. The foam used here was formed by reacting toluene diisocyanate and a polyol based on a condensed polyether of polypropylene oxide. Earlier cone calorimeter studies of this foam had revealed a clear two stage pyrolysis behavior in which the heated foam first released a gaseous fuel derived from the isocyanate component, while leaving behind a liquid produced primarily from the polyol, which only gasified and burned following additional heating. The subsequent burning behavior of the polyol-derived liquid is shown in this work to play a crucial role in the maximum heat release rate and total heat released by the fires spreading across the foam slabs. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

In this work, we investigated the thermal behaviour of a carbon-fibre composite impregnated with nano-alumina-based nanocomposites. First of all, we demonstrated that it is possible to obtain good dispersion and distribution of nanoparticles by mechanical mixing. In all the studied filler percentages, the presence of the ceramic filler did not affect the processability of the blends and the mechanical properties of the composites.

First, the thermal stability of the nanocomposites was investigated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Then, the fire reaction of the fibre-reinforced composites was studied at different heat fluxes, by TGA, cone calorimeter and exposure to a direct flame. In presence of an oxidizing hyperthermal environment, the experimental data suggested the role of ceramic particles as anti-oxidizer agent for the char and the carbon fibres. Moreover, the use of alumina nanoparticles allowed a slight reduction of heat release rate. Particularly at a heat flux of 35 kW/m², the burnt material containing the higher quantity of nano-alumina maintained a residual structural integrity because of the higher presence of char that bound together the fibres. To estimate the integrity of the composites after exposure to a direct flame (heat flux 500 kW/m²), mechanical tests were carried out on the burnt specimens. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A novel encapsulated ammonium polyphosphate (APP) with an inorganic–organic hybrid coating (MAPP) was prepared by a sol–gel method using tetraethoxysilane and octyltriethoxysilane as precursors. The properties of MAPP were investigated by water solubility, hydrophobicity, and morphological determination. The structure of MAPP was characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The flame retardancy of epoxy resin composite with MAPP was evaluated by limiting oxygen index, UL-94 test, and cone calorimetry test. The results showed that both tetraethoxysilane and octyltriethoxysilane hydrolyze and condense to form a dense polysiloxane layer structure on the surface of APP. The water solubility of MAPP was reduced from 0.64 to 0.13 g/100 mL of water, and the water resistance of epoxy resin composites filled with MAPP was also greatly improved. The limiting oxygen index, UL-94 test, and cone calorimeter results showed that the epoxy resin composites filled with MAPP had better flame retardancy, probably because of a synergistic effect between polysiloxane and APP. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Five material properties commonly used to describe the fire behavior of solids were evaluated as sole explanatory variables for four small-scale fire tests with pass/fail outcomes by using a physically based probabilistic (phlogistic) burning model. The phlogistic model describes the likelihood of passing vertical Bunsen burner tests and a regulatory heat release rate test reasonably well over a wide range of material properties, as deduced from the correlation coefficient and mean deviation of the predicted and measured values. Of the thermal, combustion, and fire properties examined, the best predictors of the likelihood of passing the fire tests of this study were the heat of combustion of the sample, the heat release capacity, and the heat release parameter. The relative merits and drawbacks of qualitative (threshold) and quantitative (probabilistic) approaches to predicting fire test results using thermal and combustion properties are discussed. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

FRP bars are made of innovative materials, and use of these bars in residential and commercial buildings and infrastructure could result in their increased applications. This requires establishment of fire resistance of the FRP bar RC. This paper describes the results of a parametric study that was carried out on hybrid and carbon FRP bar RC beams. The influence of concrete strength and load ratio on the high temperature performance of beams was investigated. The study used finite element modelling and was conducted with the help of numerical models that were calibrated previously by the authors against the data of experimentally tested beams. It was found that the beam strength and stiffness reduce in the same proportion between two consecutive load ratios and are nearly uninfluenced by the concrete strength. The amount of load was found to be a critical factor for the beam thermal resistance. Preliminary guidance for FRP RC beam design in fire situation is provided on the basis of findings of the study. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Heavyweight concrete has been used for different types of radiation shielding applications. Research studies have been performed to determine the mechanical properties of heavyweight concrete. However, relatively little information is available on the fire performance of heavyweight concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. This study investigates the effects of elevated temperatures (25, 300, 500, 600 and 800 °C) on the residual density, compressive strength and water sorptivity of heavyweight barite concrete. A control mix of normal granite concrete was produced for comparison. The influence of using treated cathode ray tube (CRT) funnel glass cullets as a fine aggregate replacement in the barite concrete was also examined. The results show that the type of aggregate used had a significant influence on the residual properties of concrete mainly because of their physical and mineralogical transformation upon heating. Incorporation of CRT glass in barite concrete seemed to increase the risk of explosive spalling after exposure to 500 °C. However, as the temperature was increased from 600 to 800 °C, the loss of mechanical properties of the concrete containing CRT glass was smaller because of the molten glass being able to fill the pores/cracks, which was followed by resolidification upon cooling. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study developed a numerical model that simulated the degradation rate and temperature profiles of a glass fiber reinforced polyester resin composite exposed to a constant heat flux in a cone calorimeter. By considering the thermal properties of the composite structure consisting of alternating layers of pure polymer and polymer-infused glass fiber mat, the numerical model seeks to reproduce the experimental data from the cone calorimeter test. The final results are achieved through adding a simulated heat flux from the pilot ignition of the degraded gas of the polyester resin. The good agreement between the predicted and experimental results suggests that such models are cost-saving tools over the process of designing and manufacturing of composites for meeting fire safety requirements, without having to fabricate many samples for testing and final selection. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Polymeric coatings applied to masonry infill walls have been demonstrated to provide protection against blast. Steel frames may be embedded in these walls to improve the structural characteristics of the building. During the process of retrofitting the walls with blast protection polymeric coatings, the steel frame may be fully or partially coated with these materials to provide adequate anchorage of the retrofit system to the frame and to avoid global failure of walls subjected to blast loading. The development of a blast-resistant coating for masonry walls that safeguards all structural elements in a fire would provide buildings with protection against explosions and a fire following the blast, as well as against ordinary building fires. This paper uses a numerical tool based on the particle finite element method to evaluate the melting and dripping of nano-enhanced polymeric coatings applied on steel members embedded within masonry walls. Viscosity measurements were performed to obtain needed parameters for the simulations. Polyurea nanocomposite residues showed a minimum in viscosity with temperature, possibly caused by cross-linking and charring. Model results for the polyurea residue with the lowest value of minimum viscosity showed that the coating remained attached, although there was some flow that caused a chunk of material to break off from an overhang. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

To reveal the dependence the flash point of flammable liquids have on altitude, a series of field tests at different altitudes in Tibet plateau were carried out by aid of a portable flash point measuring apparatus. The five tested altitudes are 3650, 3950, 4250, 4500, and 4750 m in Tibet plateau, as well as a benchmark altitude of 58 m in Hefei (a sea-level city). The test results show the flash point has a nonlinear dependence on altitude for all the tested flammable liquids. The subsequent theoretical analysis indicates that the reciprocal of flash point depends linearly on the logarithmic of altitude, which in general agrees with the test results especially at relatively low altitudes. The study indicates that the fire hazard of flammable liquids increases as the altitude increases, which is an important consideration for the safety design of aircraft fuel tank as well as the fire safety management of oil production and transport in high-altitude plateau. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study has examined the distribution patterns between gas phase and particle phase of some chemical compounds produced in fires. It has also addressed the question of the distribution of individual particle-associated species between the different size-ranges of particles. The chemical compounds studied and discussed in this paper are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and isocyanates.

The steady-state tube furnace, ISO/TS 19700, was chosen as the physical fire model in order to study the production of particles from different types of fire exposure, that is, oxidative pyrolysis, well-ventilated flaming fires and under-ventilated flaming post-flashover fires.

Two materials were chosen for investigation, a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) carpet and a wood board. The particle production from the two materials investigated varied concerning both the amounts produced and the particle size distributions.

The analysis of PAHs showed that volatile PAHs were generally dominant. However, when the toxicity of the individual species was taken into account, the relative importance between volatile and particle-associated PAHs shifted the dominance to particle-bound PAH for both materials.

The substantial degradation in the tests of the low polyurethane content of the PVC carpet, and the (4,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate)-based binder in the wood board resulted in no or very small amount of quantifiable diisocyanates. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The standard cone calorimeter according to ASTM E 1354 and ISO 5660 enables reaction-to-fire tests to be performed in ambient atmospheric conditions. A controlled-atmosphere chamber modifies the standard apparatus in a way that allows tests to be performed in nonambient conditions as well. The enclosed chamber is placed underneath the standard exhaust hood and does not have a closed connection to the hood. With this open arrangement, the exhaust gases are diluted by excess air drawn in from the laboratory surroundings. Heat-induced changes in the consequential dilution ratio affect the calculation of fire quantities and, when neglected, lead to deviations of up to 30% in heat release rate. The paper introduces a test protocol and equations to calculate the heat release rate taking dilution effects into account. A mathematical correction is shown that compensates for the dilution effects while avoiding extensive mechanical changes in the equipment. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The cone calorimeter is one of the major fire tests. The measurement method is based on the evaluation of mass flow and oxygen concentration of fire effluents to calculate heat release rate. Different studies highlighted that the governing parameter for uncertainty at important values of heat release rate was the characteristic constant of an orifice plate used to measure mass flow (C-factor). This parameter is usually determined each testing day by oxygen consumption calorimetry with a reference methane burner. This publication presents a calibration method for volumetric flow rate without using orifice plate and then an extension to C-factor determination without methane burner and calorimetry. The uncertainty calculation applied to a real example highlights the fact that the method is suitable to respect tolerance of standardized test conditions for both parameters. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Advanced fire modelling software have been developed and improved during the last couple of decays and these kinds of software have been shown to be valuable tools for fire safety engineers. However, the advances made have not replaced the need for simple hand-calculation methods. Simple hand-calculations methods can be used to obtain a first estimate of, for example, smoke layer temperatures in a performance-based design or to help an engineer determine if it is necessary to perform a detailed computational fluid dynamics calculation, but the current hand-calculations methods are limited. The current methods can for example only predict smoke gas temperatures in the fire room. A correlation that could predict temperatures in an adjacent space would be useful in performance-based design when, for example, evaluating the conditions for evacuees or sensitive equipment in an adjacent space to the room of fire origin. In this paper, a correlation for predicting gas temperatures in a room adjacent to a room involved in a pre-flashover fire is developed. The correlation is derived from results from computer simulations and the external validity is studied by comparing results from the correlation with full-scale test data. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Magnesium hydroxide, when melt extruded with poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) at low concentrations (1–3 wt.%), can be melt processed during extrusion and injection molding. When the polymer is heated in the melt to 295°C, the viscosity of the composite behaves similarly to control samples and the viscosity decreases as a function of temperature. When the temperature of the composite is raised above 295°C (above the normal processing conditions for PTT), a significant change in the melt rheology of the composite is observed relative to unfilled compositions. This change in melt rheology coincides with the decomposition temperature of magnesium hydroxide and formation of magnesium oxide, a common thickening agent employed in unsaturated polyester resins. Lower processing temperature polyesters, including PTT, enable processing of the polymer in the presence of magnesium hydroxide under normal conditions. The viscosity modifier ‘turns on’ when the composite sees elevated temperature where magnesium oxide is known to form. The magnesium oxide is hypothesized to interact with PTT carboxyl end groups, providing the observed increase in viscosity. The rheological response observed in the composites is dependent on the concentration of magnesium hydroxide. During burning, the viscosity modifier results in a non-dripping formulation of PTT. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Mg(OH)₂ (MH) nanoparticles were synthesized by hydration of the light-burned MgO at low temperature (70°C). Effects of additives, such as magnesium nitrate and magnesium acetate, on the size, morphology and agglomeration of MH particles were investigated. MH nanoparticles have platelet-like structure and approximately 20–40 nm in thicknesses. The supersaturation degree plays an important role in magnesia hydration and is defined. When magnesium acetate was used as the additive, the hydroxyl ion can be homogeneously introduced into the solution. The size and morphology of MH nanoparticles are more homogeneous. Modified by titanate coupling agent, MH nanoparticles were used as the flame retardant for polypropylene (PP). The combustibility, mechanical properties and thermal behaviors of the PP/MH composites were characterized. The mechanical properties of PP/MH composites are not seriously deteriorated with increasing MH content. When the amount of MH fraction reached 65, the limiting oxygen index (LOI) value and UL 94 testing result of MH65 are 33.8 and V-0 grading, respectively. The onset temperature (T_10%) and the maximum thermal decomposition temperature (T_max) of MH65 separately increased by approximately 100°C and 77°C than those of neat PP. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The purpose of this research was to use polyamino carboxylic acids (PACAs) and their combination with sodium hypophosphite (NaH₂PO₂) as a flame-retardant finishing system for cotton fabrics. Flammability of cotton fabric was evaluated by 45° flammability test, differential scanning calorimetry and measuring the char yield. The combination of polyamino carboxylic acids and sodium hypophosphite as a phosphorus-containing catalyst reduces the flammability of cotton. The pyrolysis properties and the results of char yield of the finished cotton show that with increasing amount of catalyst, the flame retardancy increases. Fastness against multiple laundering, whiteness and tensile strength of the cotton finished with PACAs/NaH₂PO₂ to multiple standard laundering have been studied, too. The flame retardancy effect has an acceptable washing fastness. Whiteness and tensile strength of the finished cotton do not change significantly. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A novel aluminum phosphinate—aluminum methylcyclohexylphosphinate (Al(MHP))—was synthesized by reacting n-butyl methylphosphonite with cyclohexene, followed by reacting with anhydrous AlCl₃. The products were characterized with gas chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance, phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance, X-ray fluorescent spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric (TG) analyses. After blending with epoxy resin (EP), flame retardancy was estimated with the use of limited oxygen index (LOI) and UL-94 test, and thermal stability was investigated using TG analysis. The morphologies and composition of the char obtained after being heated at 300 °C for 20 min followed by 500 °C for 3 min in the muffle furnace were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Results showed that Al(MHP) is an efficient flame retardant for EP, and Al(MHP)/EP can pass UL-94V-0 rating with an LOI of 28.8% by adding 15 wt.% of Al(MHP). TG results showed that the presence of Al(MHP) in EP increases the char yield and depresses the thermal decomposition. SEM-EDX analysis showed that the char obtained at 300 °C is coherent and consists of P-rich components; at higher temperature (500 °C), the char becomes tiny and loose and phosphorus element is released into gas. Compared with neat EP, composites have lower water absorption. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Two surface materials for reducing absorptivity of heat radiation from fires have been investigated. The first is VO₂, which is a thermochromic material. When the temperature of a VO₂ surface increases over a certain temperature, it switches, ideally, from infrared (IR)-absorbing to IR-reflecting. VO₂ window coatings are still on a research level, yet to be commercialized. In this study, VO₂ powder available on the market was investigated. The thermochromic effect could be identified but was not large enough to significantly improve the fire properties of treated surfaces. Some thoughts concerning how to improve the performance of VO₂ are discussed. The second investigated material is indium tin oxide (ITO), which is a so called low-e coating, which means that it has low emissivity and absorptivity in the IR part of the spectrum. ITO is spectrally selective in the sense that it transmits visible light while reflecting a large fraction of the IR radiation, which is a rare property for surfaces in general but a typical property of thin electrically conducting non-metallic films. It is shown that the application of ITO to poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) significantly improves its fire properties. ITO coating is a mature technology already in widespread use today in the electronics industry. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study evaluates the effect of flame heat flux on the prediction of thermal response and fire properties of a char-forming composite material. A simplified two-layer flame model was developed and incorporated into a heat transfer thermal model to predict the thermal response and fire reaction characteristics of a burning material. A typical char-forming material, E-glass reinforced polyester composite, was used in the study. A cone calorimeter was used to measure the fire reaction characteristics of the composite. The flame heat flux in a cone calorimeter test setup was estimated using the simplified flame model. Thermal response and fire property predictions with and without the effect of flame heat flux were compared with experimental data obtained from the cone calorimeter tests. Results showed that the average flame heat flux of the composite in a cone calorimeter was 19.1 ± 6 kW/m² from model predictions. The flame had a significant effect on the thermal response and fire properties of the composite around the first heat release peak but the effect decreased rapidly afterwards. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effect of zinc borate (ZnB), borophosphate (BPO₄), and organoclay were studied to improve the flame retardancy of polyamide-6 composites containing organic phosphinates. The flame retardancy of polyamide-6 composites was investigated using limiting oxygen index (LOI), Underwriters Laboratories (UL-94) standard, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and mass loss calorimeter. The addition of 15 wt% aluminum phosphinate (AlPi) increased the LOI value from 22.5 to 29.5, and V0 rating was obtained from UL-94 test. The addition of organoclay, ZnB, and borophosphate does not change the predominant gas phase mechanism of AlPi during LOI and UL-94 tests. The addition of organoclay increased the condensed phase mechanism of AlPi physically by the protective effect of layered silicate, whereas the addition of ZnB increased the condensed phase mechanism of AlPi chemically by the formation of boron aluminum phosphate species deducted from mass loss calorimeter studies. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Steel-framed houses using light-gauge steel as a structural member have been developed and constructed since the early 2000s as a new construction pattern in the low-rise construction market in Korea. Generally, the steel frames consist of two major load-carrying elements such as load-bearing wall and floor construction made up of approximately 1.0-mm cold-formed light-gauge steel and light-weight boards. Therefore, the steel frames are very simple to construct and make the construction period shorter than the ordinary construction type or concrete-based construction. In Korea, regardless of the construction material types, the building regulation requires 1-h fire rating for apartment buildings of four stories or under. To meet the fire resistance, new models of load-bearing wall and floor should be developed. From the fire test results, two layer gypsum boards of 12.5 mm in thickness reinforced with glass fiber were proven satisfactory to provide 1-h fire resistance with load-bearing wall and floor. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Two full-scale fire experiments were conducted to determine the mode of penetration of a tire fire into the passenger compartment of a motorcoach. A special burner was designed to imitate the frictional heating of hub and wheel metal caused by failed axle bearings, locked brakes, or dragged blown tires. For the first experiment, heating to obtain tire ignition was initiated on the exterior of the passenger side tag axle wheel and for the second, on the exterior of the passenger side drive axle wheel. Measurements of interior and exterior temperatures, interior heat flux, and heat release rate were performed. Standard and infrared videos and still photographs were recorded. Both experiments showed that the tire fires ignited the plastic fender and glass-reinforced plastic exterior side panel (below the windows) upon which the fires spread quickly and penetrated the passenger compartment by breaking the windows. Measurements showed that other potential fire penetration routes (flooring and lavatory) lagged far behind the windows in heating and degradation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Gypsum plasterboards are commonly used to protect the light gauge steel-framed walls in buildings from fires. Single or multiple plasterboards can be used for this purpose, whereas recent research has proposed a composite panel with a layer of external insulation between two plasterboards. However, a good understanding of the thermal behaviour of these plasterboard panels under fire conditions is not known. Therefore, 15 small-scale fire tests were conducted on plasterboard panels made of 13 and 16 mm plasterboards and four different types of insulations with varying thickness and density subject to standard fire conditions in AS 1530.4. Fire performance of single and multiple layers of gypsum plasterboards was assessed including the effects of interfaces between adjacent plasterboards. Effects of using external insulations such as glass fibre, rockwool and cellulose fibre were also determined. The thermal performance of composite panels developed from different insulating materials of varying densities and thicknesses was examined and compared. This paper presents the details of the fire tests conducted in this study and their valuable time–temperature data for the tested plasterboard panels. These data can be used for the purpose of developing and validating accurate thermal numerical models of these panels. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of mineral fillers on the fire retardancy of wood-polypropylene composites have been studied. Wood-polypropylene composites containing mineral fillers have been compounded in a conical twin-screw extruder. A composite manufactured without any mineral filler addition has been used as a reference. The flame resistance properties of the composite materials have been studied using the cone calorimeter. The results show that the introduction of mineral fillers into the wood-polypropylene composites has a favourable effect on the fire resistance properties of the composite materials. The reaction-to-fire properties have been improved according to the fire classification of construction products based on the Euroclass system. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Carbon nanotube-based poly(methyl methacrylate) and polyamide-6 nanocomposites have been investigated using various techniques within the framework of the NANOFEU project. Scanning transmission electron microscopy was used to characterize morphologies of composites, while fire properties were studied using cone calorimeter and pyrolysis combustion flow microcalorimeter. The study focused particularly on composition and microstructure of gaseous and aerosol products. Morphology of ultrafine particles released from the combustion of nanocomposites was studied using cascade impactor and atomic force microscopy. Fire behaviour has been interpreted in relation with the degradation mechanisms specifically induced by the presence of carbon nanotubes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A series of organo phosphorus flame retardants (FRs) based on aromatic phosphate and cyclic phosphate were synthesized in an attempt to develop an efficient FR for polycarbonate. Their successful synthesis was confirmed by FT-IR and ¹ H and ³¹P NMR. Their thermal stability and flame retarding efficiency as a single-component additive were investigated and compared with the commercial FR, resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate). The thermogravimetric analysis results revealed that the aromatic phosphate synthesized in this study, phloroglucinol diphenyl phosphate (PDP), shows a higher thermal degradation temperature and better flame retardancy even though it has a lower P content than cyclic phosphate-based FRs. The flame retarding efficiency was evaluated by the UL-94 test method. The V-0 rating was achieved at a PDP loading of 2 wt% in polycarbonate in the presence of an anti-dripping agent (1 wt%), which is better than that of resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) and cyclic phosphate-based FRs. The high thermal stability and P–OH generation tendency is responsible for the better flame-retarding performance of PDP. The degradation path of PDP is also discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In order to develop fuel models used as input in wildland fire propagation models, it is necessary to determine relevant vegetation properties concerned with the prediction of the combustion process. This research considers property measurements of two biomass species, namely Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia. Both species are commonly found in Greece and other Eastern Mediterranean countries. The physical application of the biomass properties relates to the structure of pine forest litter. Measurements have been recorded of the characteristics of the litter layer in situ, and common fuel properties have been determined in the laboratory using samples of the two litter species. In addition, DTA, TG and DTG analysis were performed of the two litter species. The results of the measurements are presented in a format suitable for input in fire propagation models. Comparisons of data have been made with those from other literature sources. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Smoke contamination of balconies due to a channelled spill plume at a lower level in an atrium might occur during a fire and could affect occupant safety during an evacuation. Previous experimental work has investigated the extent of smoke contamination, and this work describes a numerical modelling comparison of the experiments using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) computational fluid dynamics programme. Temperature, severity and height of smoke contamination are selected as the key parameters for comparison. The predictions of severity and height of smoke contamination are generally similar to the experimental results using a ‘most severe point assessment of smoke contamination’ assessment method. Although predicted temperatures are slightly lower than experimental values, FDS temperature slice files can be used at the most severe smoke contaminated point using a 10 °C temperature rise. This 10 °C threshold matches the criterion proposed in the previous experimental research. On the basis of the comparisons for the height of smoke contamination, the simulation results generally match a previously proposed equation for the height of smoke contamination above a balcony spill plume. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In order to develop polymer-clay nanocomposites with reduced flammability by incorporation of char-forming conventional nitrogen and phosphorus based flame retardants at low loading levels, the polypropylene-clay nanocomposites were prepared by melt blending method with Cloisite 15A (15A), organic phosphinate (OP) and ammonium polyphosphate (AP) additives. Thermal analysis shows that addition of 5% 15A along with 15% (w/w) OP in polypropylene (PP)/PPgMA increases the thermal stability of PP/PPgMA/OP/15A composite by 82 °C showing synergistic effect, and the PP/PPgMA/AP/15A sample with same loading becomes thermally stable by 70 °C. Cone calorimeter analysis of the PP/PPgMA/OP/15A and PP/PPgMA/AP/15A composites measures the reduction in peak heat release rate values by 66% and 58%, respectively. Addition of 20% OP to PP/PPgMA enhances the limiting oxygen index (LOI) value and gives V-2 rating of UL-94 test. Further, on replacing 5% OP with 5% 15A for PP/PPgMA/OP/15A sample without changing the total 20% loading, the LOI value increases further slightly but give no UL-94 rating. Also, PP/PPgMA/AP/15A sample with same loading similar to that of PP/PPgMA/OP/15A sample shows an enhancement in LOI value and gives no rating in UL-94 test. No relation was observed between LOI values and UL-94 test rating in the present study. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The aim of this paper is to study the combustion characteristics of loose fibrous cellulosic compounds through cone calorimeter measurements. The challenge in studying loose fibrous materials by cone calorimeter in a reproducible manner is met by optimizing various process parameters such as sample weight, heat flux and grid type. The method is validated using cotton fibres and fabrics with a range of flame retardant properties. Good correlations are obtained between the flame retardant content of samples and the heat release parameters for both the fibres and the fabrics. In addition, fibres from specific cotton cultivars showed statistically significant differences in heat release characteristics. This shows that valuable data concerning the combustion behaviour and the corresponding kinetics of loose fibrous compounds can be successfully gathered using a cone calorimeter. Thus, such data can be exploited to well define future fibre breeding programmes or fibre modification research. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper is to investigate the effect of altitude on Jet A's flash point using the experimental method. Firstly, the vapor pressure of four fuels is measured by saturated steam pressure tester with ND-1 pressure sensor in the low-pressure environment under nine different temperatures, and the results show that the Clausius–Clapeyron relationship between vapor pressure and temperature is applicable to the multicomponent mixture. Secondly, the BS-1 closed bomb apparatus is used to measure the oil samples, and the hypobaric chamber is applied to change the environment pressure from 55to 101.3 kPa. The flash point is found to decrease nonlinearly with the altitude increasing on the basis of the notion of a critical value of fuel–air mass ratio equals to 0.065 at the minimum flammability limit. Only when the atmospheric pressure approximates normal atmosphere does the flash point decrease linearly with the increase in altitude. This discovery agrees well with J.E. Shepherd's research. Thence, the experiment results provide scientific data for the safety of aircraft tank and benefit fire protection, such as inflammable liquid transport, storage, and so on, in oil pipeline management. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study presents the results of fire resistance tests on walls made of soil-cement and Kraftterra compressed earth blocks (CEBs). The purpose of this work was to evaluate and compare the fire resistance of CEB walls with and without cellulose pulp derived from the recycling of cement sacks. This article describes the Kraftterra mixture and its production processes as well as the fire resistance test campaign. The fire resistance performance of CEB walls produced with Kraftterra and soil-cement blocks is analysed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The purpose of the work described in this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of pre-wetting structures, dead fuels, and landscaping plants in preventing fire spread from wildland fires to structures. Critical fluxes for fire growth were determined using intermediate-scale testing for three wetting agents (water, type A foam, and gel) applied to 10 landscaping plants conditioned to 20% moisture, a mulch material, and four external structural materials (vinyl siding, plywood siding, asphalt shingle roofing, and cedar shake roofing). The critical flux for fire growth values was determined at 3-min heat radiation exposure and simultaneous 300-mm long flame exposure. Test specimens were exposed to various durations and intensities of drying prior to exposing them to heat radiation. Application of water or foam provided no noticeable protection. Gel was effective in providing protection even after 60 min of laboratory condition drying but was less successful when exposed to fire weather simulating accelerated drying. Some uncertainty is associated with the results of this work because of the variability of landscaping plants and gel wetting agent application uniformity. The intermediate-scale test results were verified using full-scale testing. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In 2003–2007, US fire departments responded to an average of 267 600 highway vehicle fires per year. These fires caused an average of 441 civilian deaths, 1326 civilian injuries, and $1.0bn (in US dollars) in direct property damage annually. Highway vehicles include cars, trucks, and other vehicles designed for highway use; highway vehicle fires can occur anywhere, not just on a highway. While these fires and associated losses have been falling in recent years, highway vehicles fires accounted for 17% of reported US fires, 12% of US fire deaths, 8% of US civilian fire injuries, and 9% of the direct property damage from reported fires. Data from the US Fire Administration's National Fire Incident Reporting System and the National Fire Protection Association's fire department survey were used to provide details about the circumstances of highway vehicle fires.

Mechanical or electrical failures caused roughly three-quarters of the highway vehicle fires but only 11% of the deaths. Collisions and overturns were factors contributing to the ignition in only 3% of the fires, but fires resulting from these incidents caused 58% of these vehicle fire deaths. The rate of bus fires per billion miles driven was 3.5 times that for highway vehicle fires overall. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Novel phosphorus-containing and nitrogen-containing intumescent flame retardants, bis-aminobenzyl spirocylic pentaerythritol bisphosphonate (BASPB) and arylene-N,N′-bis(2,2-dimethyl-1,3-propanediol phosphoramidate) (ABDPP), were synthesized, and their structures were characterized with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ¹H and ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance. The phosphorus compounds were used to impart flame retardancy to polycarbonate (PC). Combustion behaviors and thermal degradation properties of the flame-retarded-PC composites were assayed by limiting oxygen index (LOI), vertical burning test (UL-94), cone calorimeter test, and thermogravimetric analysis. PC/5 wt.% BASPB and PC/5 wt.% ABDPP composites passed UL-94 V-0 rating; their LOI values were 35.5% and 34.7%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the char properties had crucial effects on the flame retardancy. The mechanical properties and water resistance of the PC/BASPB and PC/ABDPP composites were also measured. After water resistance test, PC/5 wt.% BASPB and PC/5 wt.% ABDPP composites kept V-0 rating, and the mass loss was only 1.0%. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Because zinc borate is an effective smoke suppressant and cheaper than antimony trioxide, the main aim of this study was to investigate usability of zinc borate as the third component of a traditional binary Br/Sb₂O₃ system in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Limiting oxygen index, UL-94, and mass loss cone calorimeter studies indicated that almost all flame retardancy parameters were kept when certain percentages of antimony trioxide were replaced with zinc borate. Residue analysis revealed that the predominant flame retardancy mechanism of the traditional system was gas phase action, whereas zinc borate contributes especially in the condensed phase action by forming thicker and stronger char layer. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Originally conceived as an apparatus to study near-limit flames and their breakup into flamelets and later modified to function as a microgravity simulation apparatus, the narrow channel apparatus serves also as a facility for examining long time flame spread and material flammability in on-earth (terrestrial) applications. These applications include flame spread in narrow gaps, persistence of flame in heat-loss environments, and flame-to-flamelet front transition. The narrow channel apparatus tests described here measure behavior of the spreading flame and features of the flame-to-flamelet transition. Measured quantities include flow, flame and flamelet velocities in normal and inverted tests, flow deceleration and acceleration rates with associated flame or flamelet response, flame-to-flamelet transition times, and influences of fuel thickness. The principal goal of this research was to ascertain the capacity of the narrow channel apparatus to produce data for phenomena observed in both (1) simulated microgravity flame spread and (2) terrestrial flame spread in narrow gaps and channels. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Essential oil of fuels is closely linked with the behavior of forest fires, especially high intensity fires and eruptive fires. It is assumed that the potential reason is the large quantities of flammable gases released from essential oil-rich fuels before pyrolysis in fire environment. However, few studies have been carried out on the hypothesis. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the emissions from essential oil-rich fuels. The fuels were collected from three coniferous species. In the experiment, needles and twigs were heated in a vacuum oven at 200 °C, and the emissions within 15 min had been sampled using Tenax tubes. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry served as an analytical instrument. The results showed that the emissions contained high proportion of monoterpenes, such as α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, 3-carene, and d-limonene. The monoterpene emissions from heated needles and twigs of Pinus pumila, Larix gmelinii, and Pinus sylvestris were 61.221, 49.606, and 37.853 µg g⁻¹ dry weight (needles), and 211.727, 139.957, and 121.505 µg g⁻¹ dry weight (twigs), respectively. Statistical analyses showed the significant differences not only among species but also between needles and twigs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A method to predict time to flashover in ISO 9705 room corner fire tests based on cone calorimeter data is proposed in this paper. The method involves classification of materials and estimation of time to flashover as two steps in sequence. In the first step, the investigated material is classified into discriminating material groups. In the second step, the time to flashover is calculated with a derived formula for the corresponding material group, which contains material density, time to ignition and heat release rate collected from small-scale experiments. Compared with two existing models, the proposed method has improved the prediction precisions in both the time to flashover and classification of material categories for a wide range of materials. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Although stored at near room temperature, a large amount of stored industrial food waste or their recycled material gradually heats up and then ignites. To understand this phenomenon, soy sauce squeezing residue produced from the soy sauce brewing process and fish meal residue from processing fish were examined. We used a thermo gravimetric/differential thermal analysis system, a highly sensitive heat flux calorimeter (C80) and a spontaneous ignition tester to study their thermal properties. We applied Frank–Kamenetskii's thermal ignition theory to obtain the critical ignition temperature (Tc) and the relationship between Tc and the pile height. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This publication presents the experimental and numerical methods to model the devolatilization process of a glass-fibre-reinforced polyester/balsa-cored sandwich material on small scale. The fundamental modelling of the source term in pyrolysis-based fire simulations requires as input data the thermochemical properties of solid fuel and the kinetic parameters of the devolatilization process. First, the thermal decomposition of both elements composing the sandwich structure was studied by thermogravimetry coupled with gas analysis, in air and pure nitrogen atmospheres at several heating rates, in order to define a comprehensive multi-step reaction pathway. A differential equation system is defined to model these decomposition processes. The kinetic parameters were then estimated by solving the system of equations by an inverse problem. Second, the fire behaviour of each element was studied separately and then combined in the sandwich structure on the cone calorimeter. In addition, numerical simulations with Fire Dynamics Simulator were performed to gradually assess the ability of the model(s) to reproduce each element composing the sandwich structure. Numerical and experimental results are compared and then discussed. Overall, the model provides a good agreement with the experimental data and encourages to model higher scales. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper presents the results of an experimental and numerical simulation study to obtain thermal conductivity of intumescent coating after accelerated aging. Two types of intumescent coating were used. The main objective of this research was to check the accuracy of a thermal conductivity model for the fully expanded intumescent coating char, which was assumed to depend on the expansion thickness and the bubble size and distribution. By using the model and the measured expanded thicknesses and average bubble diameters for the two types of intumescent coating after different cycles of accelerated aging, the intumescent coating insulated steel plate temperatures were numerically calculated and compared with measured results. The agreement has been found to be generally satisfactory, suggesting that the thermal conductivity model is acceptable. The measured results of intumescent coating expanded thickness and bubble size show that aging has two detrimental effects on the insulation performance of intumescent coating: reducing the expansion thickness and increasing the bubble size, both leading to increased thermal conductivity. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Investigation on the fire resistance of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced concrete (RC) is essential for increased application of FRP bars in the construction industry. Experimental tests for determining the fire resistance of RC elements tend to be expensive and time-consuming. Although numerical models provide an effective alternative to these tests, their use in case of FRP RC structures is hindered because of the insufficient constitutive laws for FRP bars at elevated temperatures. This paper presents the details of a numerical modelling work that was carried out for simply supported carbon FRP (CFRP) and hybrid (steel-FRP) bar RC beams at elevated temperatures. Constitutive laws for determining temperature-dependent strength and stiffness properties of CFRP bars are proposed. Numerical models based on finite element modelling were employed for the rational analysis of beams using the proposed constitutive laws. The behaviour of concrete was simulated by means of a smeared crack model based on the tangent stiffness solution algorithm. The employed numerical models were validated against previous experimental results. The theoretical rebar stresses were calculated in both the FRP and steel bars, and the differences are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

With the theories of fire dynamics and relevant parameters of combustible lining materials, a predicted model of hot gas layer temperature during pre-flashover stage of enclosure fires was established, and the effects of lining materials on the likelihood of flashover were theoretically analyzed. By using common commercial lining materials, such as wall papers, foam plastics, wood-based panels, and fabric-upholstered wall panel, the phenomenon of flashover was reproduced in a small-scale firebox of 1/4 sizes of ISO 9705 test chamber. By comparing the theoretical results with experimental data, the equation predicting the hot gas layer of quasi-steady enclosure fires was gained; an indicator I_FO to reflect overall the hazards of flashover and to classify flashover fires was proposed, and its application was initially studied. The study results can be helpful to explain further and overall the effects of lining materials on enclosure fires and can be used to guide the prevention of flashover by choosing appropriate interior decoration materials. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This work concerns the assessment of fire performance of interior materials in buses. The widely used test method ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 has received much criticism mainly based on the fact that the test is a small-scale method not suited for bus fires induced by for example fire in the engine compartment or fire in a tyre. Furthermore, test specimens are oriented horizontally, whereas much fire spread in a real bus fire occurs on vertically oriented products. Seventeen products were investigated: 11 textiles, four solids and two insulations. Three test methods were compared: ISO 3795, ISO 6941 and ISO 5658-2. Given the existing criteria for interior materials, it was found that ISO 6941 and ISO 5658-2 place harder requirements on the materials.

When the three methods were compared, it was found that ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 and ISO 6941 are insufficient for simulating bus fires typically occurring today. Such fires are often initiated by a fire in the engine compartment or in a tyre and can hardly be simulated by small-scale methods as ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 or ISO 6941 even if the ISO 6941 method to some extent gives results similar to the established large-scale ISO 5658-2 method. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The improvement of thermal and mechanical properties of mortars including expanded perlite aggregate (EPA) containing either clinoptilolite, a type of natural zeolite (NZ), waste glass powder (GP) or blast furnace slag (BFS) cured at elevated temperature was analyzed using thermal conductivity, compressive strength, flexure strength and dry unit weight. EPA mortar specimens were prepared by replacing a varying part of the portland cement with the above minerals. All mortar samples were prepared and cured at 23±1°C lime saturated water for 28 days. The maximum thermal conductivity of 1.3511W/mK was determined with the control samples containing plain cement. GP has shown 1 and 4% decrease for both 10, 20% GP and 25% EPA, respectively. Both BFS and NZ have a decreasing effect on thermal conductivity. The experiments were carried out, in which the samples were subjected to temperature of 300, 500 and 800°C for 2 h, then cooled in air. The results indicated that all the mortars exposed to temperature of 500 and 800°C shown a significant decrease in thermal conductivity, compressive strength and flexure strength. However, compared with the mortars including 25% EPA, adding the other admixtures at all level replacement decreased thermal conductivity, compressive strength, flexure strength and dry unit weight as a function of replacement percent. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Flame retardancy of polymeric materials is conducted to provide fire protection to flammable consumer goods, as well as to mitigate fire growth in a wide range of fires. This paper is a general overview of commercial flame retardant technology. It covers the drivers behind why flame retardants are used today, the current technologies in use, how they are applied, and where the field of flame retardant research is headed. The paper is not a full review of the technology, but rather a general overview of this entire field of applied science and is designed to get the reader started on the fundamentals behind this technology. This paper is based upon presentations given by the authors in late 2009 at the Flame Retardants and Fire Fighters meeting held at NIST. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We studied transient chemical speciation during high-temperature solid material pyrolysis and combustion in air. Our objective was to develop a database of chemical burn signatures. The material tested was the thermoplastic PMMA. Material samples were heated in an infrared furnace until they pyrolyzed, ignited, and combusted in air. Time-resolved quantitative measurements of the exhaust species CO₂, O₂, hydrocarbons, and CO along with exhaust gas temperature were obtained. Two categories of experiments were conducted: (1) pyrolysis tests in which there was no combustion; (2) combustion tests with chemical reaction and heat release.

During heating, the sample underwent numerous processes that appear as diagnostic sequences. In the pyrolysis tests, as the furnace temperature was raised, the CO and hydrocarbon (HC) signals underwent transition from one peak to two peaks. In the combustion tests, spontaneous ignition occurred at higher test temperatures as evidenced by an exothermic reaction reported by the thermocouples, leading to three-peak CO and HC profiles. The measured O₂/CO₂ ratio of 1.3 ± 0.1 agreed with stoichiometric methyl-methacrylate monomer decomposition.

Calculations of the power output using two independent methods supported (1) that combustion was experimentally observed in the furnace, and (2) the accuracy of the combustion gas analysis. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Concrete normally suffers from low stiffness and poor strain capacity after exposure to high temperatures. This study focused on evaluating the effect of recycled glass (RG) on the residual mechanical properties of self-compacting glass concrete (SCGC) after exposure to elevated temperatures. RG was used to replace fine aggregate at ratios of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by weight. The residual properties were evaluated according to compressive strength, elastic modulus, stress–strain behaviour and strain at pre-load and peak stress. A comparative assessment of different curing conditions on the SCGC was also conducted. The results showed that there were significant decreases in compressive strength, elastic modulus and concrete stiffness of the concrete with increasing temperature. The use of RG had little influence on the elastic modulus at ambient temperature; however, after exposure to 800°C, the mechanical properties of the concrete were greatly enhanced by incorporating RG. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The thermo-physical response of timber structures in fire is complex. For this reason, debate still exists today as to the best approaches for simulating thermal response in fire using tools such as finite element analysis (FEA) modelling. Much of the debate is concerned with the thermal properties of timber, for example, conductivity, specific heat and density, at elevated temperature and how such properties should be implemented or interpreted in numerical calculations. For practitioners intending to use modelling as a fire design tool for timber buildings, guidance exists on the thermal properties of softwood in Annex B of EN 1995-1-2. These properties are limited for use under standard fire exposure conditions because of the way in which they were derived from calibration against focussed test data. As a result, they cannot be applied to non-standard fires, which are more representative of real fires due to a combination of varying heating rates and the decay phase of fire development.

The limitations of the standard fire test (and associated curve) are widely understood. As a result, much recent structures in fire research has focussed on the ‘performance based design’ of buildings subject to increasingly realistic fire conditions. Such an approach allows engineers to quantify the level of safety that can be achieved in a building should a fire occur. In addition, the design of buildings to withstand fires proportionate to the risks foreseen and also the geometry present results in better value buildings that are inherently more robust. For the same approaches and associated benefits to be realised for timber buildings, then a number of barriers must be overcome. The most obvious of these is engineers' ability to determine timber structure temperatures as a result of fires other than the standard fire curve. This however presents a number of challenges.

Upon heating, the moisture bound within begins to evaporate, volatiles begin to flow from the heated surface and char forms. The rate of which these behaviours occur and the nature of the char that forms depends on a number of factors, but most notably the rate of heating. Upon cooling, the timber member continues to generate heat energy as the surface oxidises. As a result, any models intended to simulate temperature development must consider the relationship not only between temperature and thermo-physical characteristics but also between heating rate and the process of heat generation. Many models have been developed for this purpose; however, they are extremely complex and are some way from being ready for implementation as design tools. This paper proposes implementing ‘heat of hydration’ routines, intended for the curing of concrete structures, to simulate the heating and cooling process in timber structures. Such routines are available in many commercial FEA software packages. The adoption of the hydration routines allows the heat generation process, as a result of oxidation, to be considered in parallel with solid phase heat transfer using apparent thermal properties.

The approach is shown to be very effective in simulating temperature development in timber members subject to parametric design fires. The models developed are benchmarked against experiments conducted in the 1990s by SP Trätek. Predictably, a number of the heat generation parameters adopted are shown to depend on the fire dynamics considered. However, recommended parameters are given that provide an acceptable level of accuracy for most design purposes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A comparative study of the thermal decomposition of naturally and artificially aged double-base propellants has been carried out at five different heating rates in a dynamic nitrogen atmosphere using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique. The results show that there is only one decomposition peak on DSC curves, and this decomposition has been accelerated by ageing. The influence of the heating rate on the DSC behaviour of the propellants was verified. The kinetic parameters such as activation energy and frequency factor and the thermodynamic parameters such as the enthalpy of activation, free energy of activation and critical explosion temperature for the compounds were obtained from DSC data using non-isothermal methods proposed by Kissinger and Ozawa. On the other hand, a prediction of the in-service period by van't Hoff's equation was performed and compared with the experimental results in order to check the constancy and validity of this method. As a result, the prediction procedure used to obtain the time–temperature profile was achieved with good accordance. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.