Unbleached (gray) cotton needle-punched nonwoven (NW) fabrics with 12.5% polypropylene scrim were treated with two phosphate–nitrogen-based flame retardant (FR) formulations, Southern Regional Research Center (SRRC)-1 and SRRC-2. The SRRC-1 formulation contains diammonium phosphate as the FR chemical along with urea and dimethyloldihydroxyethyleneurea. Because a trace amount of formaldehyde was still expected to be released from SRRC-1-treated FR cotton under high heat, it was preferable to eliminate the dimethyloldihydroxyethyleneurea, leading to the revised formulation SRRC-2. It has a higher content of diammonium phosphate and did not use the polyethylene emulsion that was in SRRC-1. Both formulations were of low cost as they were developed at SRRC using industrial grade chemicals. The fabrics were evaluated with a cone calorimeter using three heat flux levels, 20, 30, and 50 kW/m². On the basis of the overall cone calorimeter results for heat released and ignition times, FR NW fabrics that were treated with SRRC-2 were found to be slightly superior in flammability properties to those treated with the earlier SRRC-1 formulation, but the differences were statistically insignificant. Both preparations were much less flammable than the untreated control cotton NW fabrics. Compared with the untreated NW fabrics, the FR fabrics had higher visible smoke production. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Protection against fire for reinforced concrete constructions is of great importance worldwide. There is a general perception that concrete structures are incombustible and thus, they have good fire-resistance properties. In a real fire incident, however, concrete can be subjected to excess temperatures causing severe spalling and serious damage to concrete structures with significant economic cost and high potential risk to human life safety. Although a variety of fire-protection methods exist, there is always a need for the development of new materials with improved thermophysical properties and low cost. Inorganic polymeric materials are promising from this point of view. They are incombustible, combining excellent physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal properties with low production cost and significant environmental benefits. In this work, the thermophysical properties of ferronickel slag-based inorganic polymeric materials are studied. The results from the laboratory scale experiments are promising and indicative of the large-scale behavior of material. The effectiveness of this material has to be proved in large-scale experiments at higher temperatures simulating several severe fire scenarios as well as under all kinds of mechanical loading before concluding for its applicability as a fire protection system. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper examines charring rates for different cross-sections of single and double timber beams made from laminated veneer lumber, with nailed, screwed or glued connection types for the double beams. Charring rates and burning characteristics were examined both in a small furnace and in a larger pilot furnace. The bottom charring rates were sometimes greater than the side charring rates for very narrow beams dominated by corner effects and for double beams where the two components could separate during the fire exposure. The nail-connected double laminated veneer lumber beams experienced the largest separation, leading to charring between the two components. The best performance was from the glued connection, which showed similar charring rates as a solid timber beam. Both the large-scale and small-scale testing showed that suitably placed screws (preferably full-length threaded) can be used to give almost the same performance as a glued connection. Experimental findings were compared with results from a finite element analysis. There was reasonable agreement while the char layer was small, but less agreement in later stages as the char layer increased in thickness. Experimental findings were used to modify a spreadsheet design tool that predicts the fire resistance of a timber–concrete composite floor. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A quantitative structure–property relationship (QSPR) study is performed to develop mathematical models for the prediction of the flash point (FP) of organosilicon compounds from their molecular structures. Various kinds of molecular descriptors were calculated to represent the molecular structures of organosilicon compounds, such as topological, charge, and geometric descriptors. The genetic algorithm combined with multiple linear regression (GA-MLR) is employed to a select optimal subset of descriptors that have a significant contribution to the overall FP property. The model with the best result is a five-variable multilinear model, which showed high prediction ability when the obtained root mean square error and average absolute error for the external test set were 14.11 and 11.1 K, respectively. The model was further compared with other previously published methods. The results indicate the superiority of the presented model and reveal that it can be effectively used to predict the FP of organosilicon compounds with only the knowledge of molecular structures. This study can provide a new way for predicting the FP of organosilicon compounds for the engineering field. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

To address the growing emphasis on the use and development of sustainable materials, bio-based polymers and fibers are processed to prepare entirely bio-based fiber-reinforced ‘green’ composites. To enable these new materials to perform in lightweight vehicle and infrastructural applications, they must be characterized both structurally and in terms of their various performance characteristics. The results of preparation and characterization of bio-based composites comprising jute fabric and soy protein concentrate (SPC) modified with glycerol and/or halloysite nanotubes (HNT) are reported herein as a first look at the flammability of these bio-based nanocomposites. The results reveal that SPC has lower flammability (heat release capacity) than petrochemical-based resins, such as epoxies and vinyl esters. In addition, incorporating 5% mass fraction of HNT is found to reduce the composite flammability, while having no negative impact on the mechanical properties. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hybrid buckypapers (HBP) were developed and showed potential as efficient fire-retardant materials by implementing multiple fire retardance mechanisms. The fabrication of HBP was performed using multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) nanoparticles. The Mg(OH)₂ nanoparticles were well dispersed throughout the CNTs network, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry both confirmed the decomposition of magnesium hydroxide in the HBPs and heat absorption under elevated temperatures. Our initial results indicated that when used as a skin layer, the HBP has the potential to significantly improve the fire-retardant properties of epoxy carbon fiber composites. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) materials have received a great deal of interest among civil engineers during the past decade. This paper presents an overview of experimental studies carried out on GFRP-wrapped and epoxy-injected concrete samples exposed to elevated temperatures.

For this purpose, 0.30, 0.35 and 0.40 water to binder (w/b) ratios were used. For each w/b ratio, normal aggregates were replaced by lightweight aggregates with a size fraction of 0–2 mm at three different volume fractions such as 10%, 20% and 30% of total aggregate volume. At the same time, a group of air-entrained samples was also cast for each w/b ratios. Prepared samples were exposed to 600 °C for 3 h.

The damaged samples were separately repaired by GFRP and epoxy injection.

Before and after elevated temperature exposure, water absorption and compressive strength were tested. After repairing with GFRP and epoxy injection, only the compressive strength test was carried out. GFRP improved the compressive strength between 1–22% and 348–1403% for samples before and after being exposed to elevated temperatures, respectively. Epoxy injection increased the compressive strength of the samples, exposed to elevated temperature, between 1% and 123%. However, the epoxy injection process failed to recover the compressive strength of the samples before elevated temperature exposure. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The paper presents a numerical model for predicting the fire resistance of timber members. Fire resistance is evaluated in a two-step process implemented in the Abaqus finite element code: first, a time-dependent thermal analysis of the member exposed to fire and then a structural analysis under a constant load are performed. The structural analysis considers the reduction in mechanical properties (modulus of elasticity and strength) of timber with temperature. The analysis terminates when the member can no longer redistribute stresses from the hottest to the coldest parts, leading to structural failure. The model was used to simulate fire tests carried out on specimens made from laminated veneer lumber loaded in tension. Experimental data in terms of temperature, charring depth, displacement and failure time were compared with the numerical results obtained by assuming the thermal properties and degradation of mechanical properties with temperature as suggested by Eurocode 5, showing an overall acceptable approximation. The fire resistance of the timber member was then predicted depending upon the applied tensile loads using the numerical model and analytical formulas. The proposed finite element model can be used to predict the fire resistance of timber structures as an alternative to expensive and complicated experimental tests. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter is an interesting test method to study at the same time the effect of oxygen concentration and radiant heat flux on materials' fire behaviour and gas release. However, measurements in an extended range for these two variables can be tedious. To optimize the experimental measurement, this paper proposes a methodology based on the Doehlert design. The Doehlert method allows significant optimization of the number of tests. The optimization of measurement response is then accomplished using polynomial approximations to establish fire behaviour constitutive. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Malfunctions of nuclear power plants' (NPP) fire safety electrical equipment may be the consequence of a fire, leading to an increase of temperature and heat fluxes in a room and its adjacent ones. Electrical equipment manufacturers issue a so-called ‘maximum temperature of normal operation’ under which a continuous function is guaranteed. However, this manufacturer temperature does not correspond to the notably higher real maximum operating temperature. Exactly knowing this temperature has two impacts: adequate selection of fire safety equipment and new fire probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) damage threshold. Those levels are today very conservative for performance-based design: 40°C for electronic boards and 55°C for electromechanical materials.

That is why Electricité de France, Research and Development Division (EDF R&D), performed several tests in the MILONGA facility to investigate the thermal malfunction levels of cabinet equipment classified as ‘Important for Safety’ by

• first defining what malfunction means, according to the material type and its required function;
• defining a relevant and reliable methodology of tests;
• testing a sample of electromechanical materials and electronic boards used in NPP and
• suggesting new temperature criteria for Fire PRA.

Although the equipment behaviour may be dependent upon the materials of construction and equipment layout, the main results are the malfunction temperatures of 130°C for electromechanical materials and 95°C for electronic boards. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fire hazard of an architectural feature with double-skin façade is a concern. An identified scenario of having a post-flashover room fire adjacent to the façade was studied experimentally in a rig of 6 m tall. Eight tests of cavity depths including a wide value of 2 m, normal values of 1.5 m and 1 m and a narrow value of 0.5 m under a room flashover fire of 1200 kW were carried out. From the measured air temperature profiles inside the façade cavity, the chance of breaking the interior glass pane above the fire room is therefore very high. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this article, experimental measurements of flame temperature profile on a cylindrical tube circumference engulfed in a small-scale pool fire were carried out. Three models were presented for flame temperature distribution with analytical and numerical based methods. The first model that is based on correlation showed the best agreements with experimental data, and other two models had almost acceptable predictions. The results revealed that the analytical and mathematical based model is more general than correlation methods and may be used to predict flame temperature and have wider-range application usage. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper describes group upward evacuation experiments using escalators that were designed to investigate the feasibility of evacuation by escalators for large underground buildings. The experiments were conducted using 22-m-high (50-m-long) and 5.7-m-high (12.2-m-long) escalators in a convention facility in Tokyo. In order to consider the potential benefits of using escalators moving towards an exit for evacuation, the experiments included both stationary and upward moving modes of the escalators. Walking behavior such as walking velocity and the effective flow coefficient was measured for solo walking pedestrians and groups in various arrangements. The influence of slow pedestrians (elderly, etc.) on the group evacuation was examined by using subjects wearing an elderly simulator (Instant Senior). The following conclusions were drawn with respect to the walking behavior on an escalator: (1) the walking velocity was nearly constant throughout the 22-m-high escalator lane, (2) the walking velocity of a solo pedestrian was 0.03–0.10 m/s slower on a moving escalator than on a stationary escalator, (3) group evacuation on an escalator was strongly affected by the existence of slow pedestrians, (4) the walking velocity of a solo pedestrian on a stationary escalator was nearly identical to that on a stairway, and (5) the effective flow coefficient at the escalator entrance was dictated by the moving velocity of pedestrians on the escalator lane. Numerical evacuation simulations on a real and very deep subway station using the experimental results demonstrate a 46% reduction in the evacuation time by the use of escalators moving toward exits. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) and Sn-containing LDHs have been synthesized using a co-precipitation method, and the resulting products have been characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller(BET) surface area measurement, clearly showing that Sn-containing LDH hybrids have been successfully prepared. TEM shows the ‘house-of-cards’ structure of the Sn-LDHs produced, resulting from the edge-to-face interaction of the LDH layers. Higher tin levels lead to an additional magnesium hydroxystannate, MgSn(OH)₆, (‘MHS’) phase that is present in the form of approximately 40-nm cubic particles in an LDH/MHS hybrid structure. FTIR and XRD suggest that, at low levels of Sn, the Sn⁴⁺ may exist in the form of amorphous hydrated tin(IV) oxide rather than being incorporated into the LDH lattice. These powders have been compounded into poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and their fire performance has been evaluated using limited oxygen index and cone calorimeter techniques. Peak rate of heat release and smoke parameter can be reduced by 64% and 81%, respectively, when replacing 10 wt% of the primary ATH fire-retardant filler by the synthesized Sn-LDHs, while keeping the total fire-retardant loading at 100 phr. Thermogravimetric analysis indicates that Sn-LDH is an effective char promoter for PVC. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The flame retardancy and thermal stability of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) nanocomposites are reviewed. Results are summarized and compared on the basis of structure–property relationships. Because of the variability of groups attached on POSS, they exhibit different performance in polymer nanocomposites: metal-containing POSS show good catalytic charring ability; vinyl-containing and phenyl-containing POSS promote the strength of char. Improvements in the cone calorimeter (such as reduced peak heat release rate) are advantages of POSS as preceramics for fire retardancy compared with traditional flame retardants, and it will pave the way to the design of inorganic–organic hybrid polymer nanocomposites with enhanced flame retardancy and thermal stability. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The advantages of textile materials as building components include low weight, and in the case of textile membranes, the advantages include translucency and architectural possibilities. A common disadvantage, however, is the fire property of textile materials, which highlights the importance of fire safety assessments for building application of such materials. The work presented in this paper was conducted within the European project contex-T, ‘Textile Architecture – Textile Structures and Buildings of the Future’.

This paper presents the results of reaction-to-fire tests required for European Standard (EN) 13501–1 classification conducted with a number of textile membranes. The classification results are compared for a selection of these membranes with the information gained from a large-scale reference test that was designed within the project. The reference test was based on the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 9705 room test. It was seen that the reference test could separate the performance of the different types of membranes investigated and the repeatability of duplicate tests performed was acceptable. However, the classification of the materials by test results from the Single Burning Item (SBI) test (EN 13823) and the small flame test (EN ISO 11925–2) did not reflect the performance of the membranes in the large-scale test properly in all aspects important for fire safety. Most significantly, the ‘burn-through’ and the associated opening of a hole in the polyvinyl chloride/polyester membranes tested ventilated the hot smoke gases out of the reference room that resulted in limited flame spread and heat production. This mechanism is not modelled correctly by the SBI test, which leads to a discrepancy between classification and large-scale behaviour. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The influence of the orientation of carbon fibres on the reaction-to-fire characteristics of a layered composite has been investigated in detail. 8552/IM7 prepregs were laid up to give unidirectional and quasi-isotropic laminates. Specimen thickness (0.25 to 8.0 mm) and heat flux (15 to 80 kW/m²) were varied for irradiation. Fundamental reaction-to-fire properties of this composite are interpreted on the basis of the matrix components: epoxy resin and polyethersulfone. Cone calorimetry and temperature distributions through the laminate showed that the velocity and degree of combustion are dominated by fibre orientation for a given resin. In general, a quasi-isotropic fibre orientation leads to faster ignition, because of preferred delaminations, but retards combustion processes more effectively than a unidirectional lay-up. Migration velocities of the pyrolysis zone were measured. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Thermoplastic composites demand constant improvements in fire retardant and mechanical properties to fulfil their full market potential, especially in demanding sectors such as rail, aerospace and infrastructure, where fire performance is critical. The aim of this work is to understand the effect of reinforcing fibres on the flammability of polypropylene–glass (P-G) composites and the means of improving their fire performance in a cost-effective manner. A number of P-G composites with 0%, 10% and 20% (w/w) glass fibres were prepared using short length glass fibres. The effect of fibre content on the thermal stability, flammability and mechanical performance of the P-G composites without and in the presence of conventional fire retardants was studied. It was observed that while the presence of glass fibre lowered down the limiting oxygen index value of the composite, the rate of flame spread in a UL-94 equivalent test was also lowered. The reduction in limiting oxygen index is due to the fact that glass fibre reduces the melt dripping behaviour of polypropylene and does not let the polymer (polypropylene) move away from flame, which then burns. Cone calorimetric study indicated that the presence of glass fibre reduces the overall flammability of the composite laminate. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hydraulic lime concrete (limecrete) is a material that has a lower environmental impact than that of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete and, consequently, may be increasingly used in some construction applications. Because of its reduced strength, pozzolanic materials, such as metakaolin, are commonly used to improve its strength and durability. Simultaneously, to the increased interest in more sustainable materials, the fire behaviour of materials has also deserved an increased attention during the last years because of some important disasters that occurred.

In this study, the fire behaviour of limecrete has been investigated. To increase limecrete performance, hydraulic lime has been replaced by metakaolin in different percentages. Fire tests at different temperatures (200, 400, 600 and 830°C) and different durations (30 and 60 min) have been performed and the residual strength and chemical changes using X-ray powder diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis techniques were investigated. It became apparent that a 20% replacement of hydraulic lime by metakaolin leads to an improved performance at room temperature and fire loading. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Several studies suggest that the firebrands are a major cause of structural ignition of Wildland–Urban Interface fires in USA and Australia. For 40 years, past firebrand studies have focused on how far firebrands fly and do not assess the vulnerabilities of structures to ignition from firebrand showers. The development of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Dragon has allowed the quantification of structure ignition vulnerabilities of full-scale building assemblies. Full-scale tests are necessary to highlight vulnerabilities of structures to ignition under firebrand attack, whereas bench-scale test methods afford the capability to test new firebrand-resistant technologies and may serve as the basis for new standard testing methodologies. To this end, the present investigation was undertaken to construct a new and improved Dragon's Lofting and Ignition Research facility. This entailed removing the NIST Baby Dragon from the wind tunnel facility and inserting the new and improved NIST continuous feed Baby Dragon. The unique feature of the continuous feed Baby Dragon, over the current NIST Baby Dragon, is the capability to produce a constant firebrand shower in order to expose building materials to continual firebrand bombardment. The efficacy of the new experimental facility to determine ignition regime maps of building materials exposed to wind-driven firebrand showers is presented. Specifically, ignition regime maps are presented as a function of continuous firebrand generation rate, wind tunnel speed, and cedar moisture content. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this work, flame retardant systems comprising ammonium polyphosphate (AP423) and hydrophilic (A200) or hydrophobic (R805) nanometric silica were incorporated into PMMA. The following techniques were performed to detail the fire behaviour of the composites: mass loss cone calorimetry, pyrolysis-combustion flow calorimetry, pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and microscopic observations. The best fire behaviour was obtained with the surface-treated silica in the presence of AP423. The formation of a new crystalline phase from the interactions between AP423 and R805 silica and a strong barrier effect due to a layered residue were the main modes of action of this system. Moreover, we have shown that the difference between the AP423 + R805 and AP423 + A200 systems was due to poor dispersion of the silica into the PMMA matrix in the latter formulation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Compact silicone/alumina composite was obtained by highly filling aluminum oxides and hydroxides in silicone resin. The flexural strength and dimensional change of the silicone/alumina composite after being fired has have been studied. It presented a special fire resistance, which could well coordinate the contradiction between the mechanical strength retention and the dimensional stability of silicone-based composite in case of catching fire. Thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and electron dispersion spectroscopy were applied to systematically explore the process of the in-suit organic-to-inorganic transformation. A possible mechanism was proposed to illustrate the phenomenon of the high strength retention and dimensional stability of silicone/alumina composite under fire. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In large-scale fires, the input of energy to burning materials occurs predominantly by radiative transfer. The in-depth (rather than just surface) absorption of radiant energy by a polymer influences its ignition time and burning rate. The present investigation examines two methods for obtaining the absorption coefficient of polymers for infrared radiation from high-temperature sources: a broadband method and a spectral method. Data on the total average broadband transmittance for 11 thermoplastics are presented (as are reflectance data), and the absorption coefficient is found to vary with thickness. Implications for modeling of mass loss experiments are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This work concerns the assessment of fire performance of interior materials in buses. The widely used test method ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 has received much criticism mainly based on the fact that the test is a small-scale method not suited for bus fires induced by for example fire in the engine compartment or fire in a tyre. Furthermore, test specimens are oriented horizontally, whereas much fire spread in a real bus fire occurs on vertically oriented products. Seventeen products were investigated: 11 textiles, four solids and two insulations. Three test methods were compared: ISO 3795, ISO 6941 and ISO 5658-2. Given the existing criteria for interior materials, it was found that ISO 6941 and ISO 5658-2 place harder requirements on the materials.

When the three methods were compared, it was found that ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 and ISO 6941 are insufficient for simulating bus fires typically occurring today. Such fires are often initiated by a fire in the engine compartment or in a tyre and can hardly be simulated by small-scale methods as ISO 3795/FMVSS 302 or ISO 6941 even if the ISO 6941 method to some extent gives results similar to the established large-scale ISO 5658-2 method. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Poly(n-octadecyl acrylate) (PnOA) was used as an interfacial compatibilizer for improving the performance of polypropylene/alumina trihydrate (PP/ATH) composites in this study. The influences of PnOA on the properties of fire-retardant PP/ATH composites were evaluated by tensile and impact tests, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation, thermogravimetric analysis, and mass flow rate tests. The results suggested that PnOA significantly improved the mechanical properties and rheological behavior of the PP/ATH composites. SEM observation helped formulate reasons for these differences. A pronounced difference in DSC curves was detected for the composites with and without PnOA when the temperature is near the melt temperature of PnOA. Tentative theoretical explanation was also provided based on related DSC and SEM analysis. PnOA is a promising new compatibilizer for polyolefin composites with aluminum trihydrate as a flame retardant. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

To predict the time that a building will take to be evacuated in an emergency and to design lift systems capable of dealing with the demand, building designers need an understanding of the likely exiting behaviour of occupants.

Because of the inherent difficulties of carrying out research in human behaviour, a number of approaches have been used in this investigation, including analysis of data from past fire events and a number of surveys. The results from this work suggest that the split of occupants using the stairs or lifts to evacuate is governed predominantly by floor level of the occupant and that it is unreasonable to expect that occupants will wait indefinitely for a lift to arrive in an emergency situation. The drop-off in the percentage of occupants that will continue to wait for a lift with increasing waiting time is dependent on floor height.

These results will allow building designers to make more realistic assumptions when designing evacuation strategies incorporating lifts. It is also hoped that a better understanding of the reservations that building users may have about using lifts for evacuation in emergency situations will allow better occupant training programmes to be developed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Most of the polymeric materials used are easy to ignite and show extensive flame spread along their surfaces. Apart from extensive heat release rates, their short time to ignition (t_ig), in particular, is a key fire hazard. Preventing ignition eliminates fire hazards completely. Protection layers that shift t_ig by more than an order of magnitude are powerful flame retardancy approaches presenting an alternative to the usual flame retardancy concepts.

Coatings are proposed that consist of a three-layer system to ensure adhesion to the substrate, acting as an infrared (IR) mirror and protecting against oxidation. The IR-mirror layer stack is realised by physical vapour deposition in the sub-micrometre (<1 µm) range, reducing heat absorption by up to an order of magnitude. Not only is the ease of ignition diminished (t_ig is increased by several minutes), the flame spread and fire growth indices are also remarkably reduced to as little as 1/10 of the values of the uncoated polymers open for further optimization. Sub-micrometre thin IR-mirror coatings yielding surface absorptivity <0.1 are proposed as a novel and innovative flame retardancy approach. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This article addresses the thermal properties and the microstructure of gypsum boards produced from β-hemihydrate by studying its dehydration process.

Dehydration reaction of gypsum boards was investigated from both micro and macro levels, employing thermogravimetric analysis and a ventilated oven. A new dehydration mechanism of gypsum was proposed. The thermal properties of gypsum board such as enthalpy of reaction, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity were studied by differential scanning calorimetry and a heat transfer analyzer, respectively. The effect of void fraction and dehydration on thermal physical properties of gypsum board was investigated. The microstructure of the gypsum board at high temperature was studied with experiments and modeling. A model was proposed to describe the microstructure of a dehydrated system at high temperature, and experiments indicate its validity. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of gypsum at high temperature were investigated, and the effect of water content was discussed as well. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The fire performance and mechanical properties of an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer compounded with different expandable graphites (EG) and fire retardants were studied by using the limiting oxygen index test, the UL-94 test, a mechanical test, and a thermogravimetric analysis. The ground EG treated with phosphoric acid and silane could have the great increase of the volume expansion ratio. The addition of the treated EG in ABS significantly enhances the fire performance but decreases the impact strength of ABS. ABS with the treated EG has a much higher impact strength than with the as-received EG because of the smaller particle size of the treated EG and the better adhesion between the ABS and the treated EG. The addition of modified ammonium polyphosphate or decabromodiphenyl oxide/antimony trioxide can considerably improve the fire performance of ABS/treated EG composites because of a synergistic effect. The V-0 grade (UL-94) ABS composite with the limiting oxygen index of 32.5 can be obtained by adding small amounts of the treated EG and modified ammonium polyphosphate into ABS. Thermogravimetric analysis results indicate that the initial vapor release temperatures and the weight loss rates of ABS/EG composites are closely related to their fire performance and affected by the fire retardant used. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation of the effects of intumescent coating and nanoparticles on the burning behaviors of flaxboard. Virgin flaxboard samples and those coated with intumescent coatings (with/without nanoparticles) were tested in the cone calorimeter and single burning item (SBI) test. Experimental results show a significant increase in the time to ignition and also a reduction in the heat release rate by the intumescent coatings. In order to explain quantitatively and predict the effects of the intumescent coating, a global fractional factor (the ratio of the heat flux at the interface of the intumescent surface and the char layer of flaxboard to the surface heat flux when there is no intumescent coating layer) was introduced based on analytical solutions for charring materials. The fractional factor for the intumescent coatings was found by comparing predictions to the experimental data in the cone calorimeter test and, subsequently, was incorporated in an upward flame spread model, along with the ignition and thermal properties deduced from the ignition tests, to predict the burning rates in the SBI tests. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fourteen experiments on cracking behavior of glazings with thicknesses of 3, 6, 8, and 10 mm by radiant exposure were carried out with a new experimental apparatus. The radiant power was controlled proportional to time square to simulate a time-squared growth fire. An infrared thermal imaging camera was employed to monitor the temperature field of the unexposed glazing surface. Other important parameters including incident heat flux, local gas temperature, exposed surface temperature, and time of the first cracking were obtained. The relationship between the cracking behavior and glazing thickness was analyzed based on the experimental results. The results show that the protected edge temperature of glazing has a considerable rise when the first cracking occurred, which should be included in further modeling. It was also shown that thicker glazings have smaller surface temperature during the heating process and induce longer time to first crack. However, the critical temperature difference approximately remains constant for all glazings studied. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Data are essential to the understanding of human behaviour in fire. Human egress data-sets are scarce, and those currently available are relatively narrow in scope, from varied sources, inconsistently described and frequently several decades old. This paper describes a framework for the storage and presentation of human egress data. This work has been conducted as part of a project funded by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and, as a result, a central repository of data will be created that provides tools to facilitate the storage, representation and access to the data needed for researchers and engineers alike. When fully implemented, this framework (in the form of a Data Portal) will better inform the use of the data available and make accessing this data more convenient. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Organic materials like paper, cardboard, textiles or plastics are mostly flammable. In intermediate storages for recycling products, these materials are stored in large amounts. If fire occurs in these stores, large emissions of smoke and other potentially harmful products are likely. In the present study, the gaseous products released from fires of such materials—for example, because of self-ignition—were investigated. Different fractions (paper/cardboard, textiles and plastics) were crushed at low temperatures (about 80 K) and subsequently allowed to smoulder at different temperatures using the German standard Deutsches Institut für Normung 53436. The gases produced were sampled and analysed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The chemical composition of these gases differed considerably depending on fuel type. For flammable materials without heteroatom, the gases consisted predominantly of toxic compounds like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Smouldering of materials containing heteroatoms showed, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water vapour, further toxic components containing the heteroatom. Materials containing chlorine produced hydrogen chloride, and materials containing nitrogen produced ammonia and hydrogen cyanide. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Small-scale fire tests including the Underwriters Laboratories 94 (UL94) vertical burning test and the cone calorimeter test are widely used. In this paper, the ignition times of materials heated by the conical heater of a cone calorimeter and the UL94 flame were measured. It was found that for polymer bars heated by the UL94 flame, the ignition time is relatively short and increases with the specimen thickness. But the contribution of the specimen thickness to the delay of the ignition time is limited. The intrinsic properties of materials play a more important role in the ignition time than the specimen thickness. In addition, respectively corresponding to one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional heat transfer, three heating modes of the UL94 flame were presented and compared with the conical heater. It was found that whether the heat source is the conical heater or the UL94 flame, the ignition time depends on the heat flux and the multidimensional heat transfer. The ignition time decreases with the increasing heat flux, and the magnitude order of the ignition time might drop when the heating mode changes from one-dimensional to multidimensional heat transfer. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Exfoliated graphite nanoplatelets (xGnPs) were used to improve the flame resistant performance of glass fiber-reinforced polyester composites. Along with xGnP, traditional intumescent fire retardant ammonium polyphosphate (APP) was introduced into the polymer matrix as the dominant additive to reduce the heat release rate (HRR) and total heat released (THR) of the composites. The cone calorimeter test results Indicate that the optimal weight ratios of xGnP and APP were 3% and 17% by weight, respectively. At such weight ratio, a synergistic effect between xGnP and APP was demonstrated. The flame resistant performance of the nanocomposites was further improved by applying xGnP-dominant carbon nanofiber (CNF)/xGnP hybrid nanopaper onto the surface of the samples. Compared with the control sample, the integration of the HRR (THR) from 0 to 100 s of the sample coated with the nanopaper of CNF/xGnP = 1/3 shows more than 30% decrease in THR. Based on the results of mass loss, the nanopaper coating is also shown to enhance the structural stability of the samples under fire conditions, which affects the mechanical properties of the composites. The results show that the thermal properties, permeability of composites, and char formation play important roles in determining the fire behavior of the composites. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fire safety is dependent on reliable information on material properties, particularly relating to burning behaviour. The Underwriters Laboratory UL-94 test is a widely used simple Bunsen burner test for vertically upward flame spread. Aryl polyetheretherketones (PEEK) are polymers of exceptional thermal stability, typically decomposing at around 600°C and forming 50% carbonaceous char residue. Tests on seven PEEK polymers, and two related materials, in independent laboratories have revealed large inconsistencies in both the final broad classification and the scatter within each set of test results. In many cases, this variance is so large that if samples from the same batch of many of the materials were repeatedly submitted to test laboratories, this would ultimately result in one set remaining below the maximum burn time criteria, and so meeting the least flammable V-0 rating. Initial data are presented indicating that a larger ignition source actually results in shorter burning times and more consistent burning behaviour. The reported behaviour of PEEK indicates that the inconsistencies reported here are not a function of inconsistencies in the material itself but rather a consequence of the low applied heat flux of the test method being very close to the critical heat flux for ignition of the PEEK polymer, which is rather high. With higher applied heat fluxes, this generates sufficient heat for a protective char to form, creating an effective barrier to further flame spread. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Commercial polyester textiles have been finished with hydrotalcite, nanometric titania and silica aqueous suspensions and further characterised in order to investigate their combustion behaviour. Two different features of the finishing procedure have been studied: the role of immersion time and the pH suspension. The corresponding distribution and dispersion of nanoparticles on polyester fibres have been evaluated by scanning electron microscopy coupled to elemental analysis. Furthermore, an eventual surface pre-treatment of fabrics has been evaluated using cold oxygen plasma. Combustion data have shown that the cone calorimeter is a useful instrumentation to characterise the treated fabrics (when they are washed, as well) in terms of their ability to modify ignition and burning behaviour. Only hydrotalcite-containing treatments have consistent increases in times to ignite, and hence, flame retardancy levels have been achieved. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Aggregates typically constitute 70 to 80 wt% of concrete, and therefore their type, size, and structure play an essential role in modifying the properties of concrete. When concrete is used for shielding nuclear applications, temperature is also a key factor. This study investigates the effects of elevated temperatures (25 °C, 200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, and 800 °C), heating durations (1, 2, and 3 h), and cooling regimes (air, and water cooling) on mechanical properties of concrete containing different proportions of hematite. A sample of plain concrete was produced for comparison purposes by using river sand, crushed sand, and crushed aggregates. Replacement ratios of 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% were used for hematite aggregates. The cement content and water–cement ratio were 450 kg/m³ and 0.38, respectively. Slump values of fresh concretes as well as unit weight, compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and elasticity modulus values of hardened concrete were determined. The addition of hematite into concrete seems to improve its mechanical properties, and hematite concretes have better thermal stability at elevated temperatures than plain concrete does. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Recent years have seen an increasing number of deep subway stations, and many of the existing stations have been made progressively barrier free. This has been accompanied by the installation of more and more escalators, and often existing stairways have been converted to escalators. This has resulted in fewer egress paths in an emergency case. Considering this background, firstly, a crowd walking experiment using stopped escalators was conducted in order to get the base data, for example, on obtained walking speed, for the parameters in the evacuation simulation of several fire scenarios in a typical subway station. Secondly, a smoke movement simulation of the metro fire scenarios was conducted to demonstrate the applicability of the smoke model in a two-layer zone model. Finally, based on the results of the evacuation and smoke simulations of the chosen subway station, we examined the availability and the issues of evacuation using stopped escalators. As a result, it was found that the evacuation potential of passengers on a platform is considerably improved if escalators are permitted in addition to stairs for emergency evacuation. Several issues to be considered for the safe operation of escalators are identified. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Smoke deposition patterns are a potentially rich source of information concerning the behavior of a fire. Clean burn patterns are smoke-free areas where smoke deposits have been oxidized away. In order to predict the formation of clean burn patterns, smoke oxidation kinetics are required. Smoke oxidation kinetics were studied for smokes from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polypropylene, and gasoline. The fuels were burned below a hood, and smoke samples were collected from the hot gas layer and from the wall surfaces. The smokes from various polymers and gasoline were found to contain no measurable volatile organic chemicals. The kinetics of the smokes from the polymers and gasoline were found to be satisfactorily modeled as first order in both smoke and oxygen with the same kinetic constants for all fuels tested. The activation energy was calculated to be 211 kJ/mol, and the pre-exponential factor was found to be 4.7 × 10¹⁰/s. These kinetic parameters provide a basis for modeling clean burn pattern generation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The fire behavior and the smoke emission of an unsaturated polyester resin modified by the addition of three phosphorus-based fire-retardant materials (ammonium polyphosphate (APP), silane-coated APP, and melamine pyrophosphate) at two concentration levels (20% w/w, 35% w/w) have been investigated. Scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and optical microscopy analysis have been performed to verify the dispersion and the action mechanism of additives within the resin. Results from cone calorimetric tests demonstrated that the incorporation of the fire retardants at 35% w/w has a strong effect on flammability and smoke suppressant properties with respect to both the neat resin and the loaded systems at 20% (w/w). In particular, the smoke formation and smoke parameters are reduced by 50% and 80%, respectively, leading to the conclusion that APP can be used single-handedly without combination with specific smoke suppressors. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Signage systems play an important role in aiding occupants during both circulation and evacuation. Despite the fact that signage systems are an important component in building wayfinding systems, there is a lack of relevant data regarding how occupants perceive, interpret and use the information conveyed by emergency signage. The effectiveness of signage systems is therefore difficult to assess. In this paper, we address this issue through experimentation. The experiment involved measuring the impact of a signage system on a population of 68 test subjects who were instructed to individually vacate a building as quickly as possible via any means they thought appropriate. The evacuation path involved a number of decision points at which emergency signage was available to identify the appropriate path. Through analysis of video footage and data derived from questionnaires, the number of people who saw and utilised the signage information to assist their egress is determined. The experimental results are used to enhance the existing signage model within the buildingEXODUS software. In particular, the signage detection and acceptance probabilities are assigned values based on the experimental data rather than the ideal values previously used in the model. The impact that the enhanced signage model has on evacuation analysis is demonstrated in a hypothetical evacuation scenario. The enhanced signage model is shown to produce a more conservative lower estimate of expected egress times. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The quantification of merging flows and the factors that influence evacuee merging behaviour are important considerations in our understanding of emergency evacuation of particularly high-rise buildings, and essential for better escape route design and evacuation modelling. This paper presents the results of three evacuation studies to investigate merging flows and behaviours on stairs. Stair:floor merging ratios are provided together with specific flows from the floor and stair. The potential influence of the geometrical location of the floor relative to the stair and the occupant population is discussed. The results indicate that, despite differences in the geometrical location of the door in relation to the stair and the relative stair/door width, the merging was approximately 50:50 across the duration of the merge period in each of the buildings studied. Differences in merge patterns were however evident throughout the merge periods in each of the buildings, particularly in the case where the floor occupants approached from a corridor adjacent to the incoming stair, in which case floor occupants took priority during periods of slower movement. There were also suggestions that some occupant characteristics such as gender or role may have a potential influence on merging, with very obvious deference behaviour of a few individuals dictating the merging in a mixed occupancy building. The studies highlight the potential influence of geometrical location of floor relative to the stair, relative door/stair widths and population characteristics on merge patterns and indicate that much more work is required in this area. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper presents a detailed description of an agent-based lift (elevator) model developed within buildingEXODUS software intended to represent evacuation scenarios. The main components of the lift model are described including the lift: kinematics, attributes and dispatch control. The agent–lift interaction model is also described, including the lift bank selection, the lift waiting area behaviour (wait location selection and wait duration) and the lift car selection and entry. The lift model is used to investigate a series of full building evacuation scenarios based on a hypothetical 50 floor building with four staircases and a population of 7840 agents. The analysis explores the relative merits of using up to 32 lifts (arranged in four banks) and various egress lift dispatch strategies to evacuate the entire building population. Findings from the investigation suggest that the most efficient evacuation strategy utilizes a combination of lifts and stairs to empty the building and clear the upper half of the building in minimum time. Combined stair lift evacuation times have been shown to be as much as 50% faster than stair only evacuation times. The introduction of the agent milling behaviour resulted in reductions in evacuation times compared with the same scenarios without milling behaviour. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This project targeted parents around Australia asking them to set off their home smoke alarm when their child was asleep and enter the results onto a special web site. The main aim was to determine the likelihood of children waking up under the same alarm conditions as would apply on a typical night at home. Valid data were collected for 123 children (60 M, 63 F, ages 5–15 years). Recruitment was done entirely via the media and postcards. Parents set off the smoke alarm closest to the child's bed for 30thinspaces, 1–3 h after sleep onset and 78% slept through the alarm. Younger children (5–10 years) were significantly more at risk, with 87% sleeping through, compared with 56% of 11–15-year olds. Of the 27 children who woke up, 61% knew that the sound that woke them was a smoke alarm and 47% indicated that they knew they should leave the house. Our previous research suggests that some 5–10% more children may wake up if the alarm continues for 3 min. This study, consistent with previous less naturalistic studies, suggests that less than a third of children may wake up to their home smoke alarm within 3 min. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The word ‘panic’ is frequently used in media accounts and statements of survivors of emergency evacuations and fires, but what does it really mean, is it a phenomenon that actually occurs? This paper first examines the concept from the view of the general public, particularly the media. Definitions of panic behaviour related to emergency response are summarized and evidence of behaviour from actual fire incidents are presented through interview data and case studies. Despite the data demonstrating that panic is a very rare occurrence in fires, the idea of panic and the term continue to be used by the public as well as fire experts. It is therefore necessary to demystify the misconception that panic is an essential element of a fire and identify any scientific justification for continuing to use this concept. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

On 11 September 2001, one of the largest workplace evacuations in the U.S. history took place. The evacuation was largely successful: an estimated 87% of all occupants in World Trade Center (WTC) Towers 1 and 2 exited in less than two hours. Evacuation times, however, were highly variable and not entirely explained by the engineering parameters of the buildings. To understand the complexity of factors that potentially influenced the evacuation time on 11 September, 2001, an interdisciplinary research study was conducted by public health scientists from the Mailman School of Public Health at the Columbia University in the New York City. Analysis of survey data collected from a sample of 1444 evacuees identified several facilitators and barriers to length of time to initiate and fully evacuate from WTC Towers 1 and 2. At the individual level, these included sociodemographic and occupational variables, health status, sensory cues, risk perception, delaying behaviors, and following a group or an emergent leader. At the organizational level, factors included emergency preparedness safety climate variables. Structural (environmental) factors included egress route barriers, poor signage, congestion, and communication system failures. Many factors identified in the study are modifiable. Therefore, these data have the potential to inform high-rise preparedness and response policies and procedures. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper briefly describes the methodologies employed in the collection and storage of first-hand accounts of evacuation experiences derived from face-to-face interviews with evacuees from the World Trade Centre (WTC) Twin Towers complex on 11 September 2001 and the development of the High-rise Evacuation Evaluation Database (HEED). The main focus of the paper is to present an overview of the preliminary analysis of data derived from the evacuation of the North Tower with an emphasis on frequency of occupant stoppages on stairs, occupant stair travel speeds and occupant response times. The paper also describes some of the evacuation modelling analyses of the evacuation of the North Tower undertaken as part of project HEED. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The improvement of thermal and mechanical properties of mortars including expanded perlite aggregate (EPA) containing either clinoptilolite, a type of natural zeolite (NZ), waste glass powder (GP) or blast furnace slag (BFS) cured at elevated temperature was analyzed using thermal conductivity, compressive strength, flexure strength and dry unit weight. EPA mortar specimens were prepared by replacing a varying part of the portland cement with the above minerals. All mortar samples were prepared and cured at 23±1°C lime saturated water for 28 days. The maximum thermal conductivity of 1.3511W/mK was determined with the control samples containing plain cement. GP has shown 1 and 4% decrease for both 10, 20% GP and 25% EPA, respectively. Both BFS and NZ have a decreasing effect on thermal conductivity. The experiments were carried out, in which the samples were subjected to temperature of 300, 500 and 800°C for 2 h, then cooled in air. The results indicated that all the mortars exposed to temperature of 500 and 800°C shown a significant decrease in thermal conductivity, compressive strength and flexure strength. However, compared with the mortars including 25% EPA, adding the other admixtures at all level replacement decreased thermal conductivity, compressive strength, flexure strength and dry unit weight as a function of replacement percent. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Curtain materials are commonly used as decoration, shade, or screen. They are flammable and are usually across a large part of a room, leading to the risk of a high fire hazard. Once ignited, the upward fire spread would accelerate the fire development in an enclosure. In this paper, fire hazard of three typical curtain materials with different pleat rates were tested in an ISO 9705 fire test room. Fire parameters such as temperature field, flame spread rate, heat release rate (HRR), and emitted gases, and the influences of pleat rate and cotton content on flame spread rate were investigated. The correlation between flame spread rate and HRR was discussed. The results show that the upward flame spread has an accelerating rate, and an inverted-triangle burning area would emerge during the combustion. Some horizontal fibrillar structures appear in this burning area. Pleat rate and cotton content have considerable influence on the curtain fire behavior. The flame spread rate shows a linear response to HRR at the early stage. In addition, a function between average flame spread rate and pleat rate for engineering estimation is proposed, and a linear relationship between HRR/m_CO and m/m_CO has been obtained. The study results provide valuable reference to building fire simulation and safety design. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Combustion characteristics of asphalt binder containing flame retardant (magnesium hydroxide, MH) were investigated using thermogravimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, and multistage combustion model of asphalt binder was developed. The results indicate that the combustion processes of asphalt binder and MH-modified asphalt binder both include three main sequential stages. But with the MH concentration increase, the release amount of flammable volatiles is reduced, and the asphalt binder ignition time is delayed. Asphalt binder thermal stability is improved by incorporation of MH. At the same MH concentration, the kinetics parameters increase from the first to third stage. But in each stage, the kinetics parameters exhibit an increase trend in the first stage as the MH content increases, but in the second and third stages, the kinetics parameters show a trend of first increase and then decrease. Furthermore, the parameters reach the maximum at the concentration of around 20% by weight. This concentration may be appropriate for flame-retarding asphalt binder. It is concluded that MH may be used as a new kind of environment-friendly flame retardant for asphalt binder, and the developed thermal analysis kinetics model can be employed to evaluate the combustion characteristics of asphalt binder. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Gypsum plasterboards are the most widely used passive fire protection for timber structures, especially in the case of light timber frame construction. Understanding the complex thermo-physical behaviour of plasterboard at elevated temperature is vital in the performance-based design of any structure adopting gypsum as passive fire protection (PFP). Numerous heat transfer studies have been conducted over the years where attempts have been made to simulate the fire performance of gypsum-protected assemblies, subject to standard fire exposure. However, contradictory thermal properties for gypsum plasterboard are apparent throughout. As a result, it is unclear from a practitioner's perspective as to which studies represent reasonable properties for design purposes. In recognition of this the authors present a numerical study highlighting the consequences of adopting many of the differing property sets available in the literature, the sensitivity of temperature development resulting from deviations from the assumptions that underpin such properties, and the consequences of adopting plasterboard properties derived from standard fire tests, in natural fire situations. The study presents heat transfer simulations conducted using the finite element software TNO DIANA coupled with both laboratory and natural fire tests conducted on Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) and Engineered Floor Joists (EFJs).

It is found from this study that plasterboard properties are highly sensitive to the assumed free and chemically bound moisture contents. Minor percentage changes are shown to have a significant influence on the temperature development of SIPs exposed to standard furnace fires, while some of the most accepted plasterboard properties available in the literature are found, in some cases, to be non-conservative when adopted in simulations of SIPs. More interestingly, it is also found that the properties of plasterboard available in the literature, largely derived from standard fire tests, are not independent of the heating rate. As a result, when such properties are applied to natural fire problems significant inaccuracies can occur. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this research, we evaluated the repeatability of microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC) measurement of heat release properties for different textile fabrics including polypropylene, cotton, polyester, Kevlar, acrylic, nylon, silk, and the cotton treated with an organophosphorus flame retardant. The repeatability investigation was mostly based on the measurement of peak heat release rate (PHRR) and heat release capacity (HRC), the two most important heat release parameters measured by MCC. We found that PHRR and HRC of most textile fibers had coefficient of variance (CV) lower than and in the vicinity of 3.0. The CVs were influenced by both the standard deviation (SD) of measurements and by the values of these measurements. The use of an aerobic pyrolysis environment (80/20 nitrogen/oxygen) for MCC experiments did not affect the repeatability of measurement. We also evaluated the shift of the oxygen analyzer as a result of long-term usage, and found that PHRR and HRC of cotton decreased between−4.0 and−3.9, respectively, after an 11-month period, indicating that the shift of the oxygen analyzer is limited. Experimental factors influencing the MCC repeatability were also discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study investigates the fire reaction properties of concrete made with recycled rubber aggregate (CRRA). Four different concrete compositions were prepared: a reference concrete (RC) made with natural coarse aggregate and three concrete mixes with replacement rates of 5, 10 and 15% of natural fine and coarse aggregate by recycled rubber aggregate (RRA) obtained from used tyres. Specimens of CRRA were tested in a cone calorimeter according to the test standard ASTM E1354, submitted to heat fluxes of 25, 50 and 75kW/m². These tests evaluated the effects of incorporating RRA in the fire reaction properties of concrete, namely in the heat release rate, the time to ignition (TTI), the remaining mass, the production of smoke, and the release of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Owing to the organic nature of RRA, with the exception of the carbon monoxide yield, higher replacement rates of natural aggregates by RRA and increasing heat flux led to a worse fire reaction response, particularly in terms of TTI, heat release rate and smoke production. Results of these experiments were then used to estimate the European fire reaction classes of each concrete composition, using a flame spread model. All CRRA compositions tested were provisionally rated as class A2 or B and such ratings allowed defining the field of application of each solution under analysis, according to building code requirements. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In lightweight walls and floors, the load-bearing timber members are protected by cladding on the sides to form a divider between two fire compartments or to provide appropriate fire protection to the load-bearing members. The spaces between the timber members can be void or filled with insulation materials. Although a huge number of different insulation materials exist, the most commonly used material is mineral wool insulation.

The existing design model for glass wool-insulated timber-frame constructions, given in European standard 1995-1-2, assumes collapse of the glass wool after failure of the cladding. However, a new form of glass wool insulation, suitable for use at high maximum service temperatures, is now available in the market. The charring phase after the cladding's failure is known as the post-protection phase. The behaviour of the new heat-resistant glass wool in the post-protection phase is similar to that of stone wool and considerably better than that of traditional glass wool. The protective properties of stone wool have changed over the last decades.

Charring is one of the main parameters needed to calculate the resistance of a structure to fire. Based on experimental investigations, this paper describes the analysis of the effect of the insulation with regard to its ability to protect timber members against charring during the post-protection phase. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.