Essential oils are gaining increasing interest for their antimicrobial and antiviral properties, as well as for their preventive and therapeutic actions against many human pathologies. Herein, we present an overview on new discoveries in essential oil research, discussing antimicrobial activity, as well as immunomodulatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoural properties. In addition, we emphasize recent advances in the identification of bioactive components and understanding of their mechanism of action. We discuss their molecular diversity and wide spectrum of activity as well as their structure–activity relationships and capability of targeting paradoxical responses triggered by different genes and pathways. Finally, we emphasize the effort required to isolate and identify the bioactive components of essential oils and to determine their cytotoxicity as their specificity. Thus, new approaches to specifically address bioactive components to selected targets could enhance the latter property in order to accommodate any cytotoxicity towards dysfunctioning loci. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The review discusses the antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-angiogenic and anti-tumoural properties of essential oils. We emphasize recent advances in identifying the bioactive components of essential oils and analysing their mechanism of action. We also discuss the wide spectrum of activity of essential oils as well as their structure–activity relationship and capability to target paradoxical responses. Finally, we emphasize that efforts should be undertaken to isolate and identify the bioactive components of essential oils and determine their cytotoxicity and their specificity.

The chemical compositions of Corsican and Sardinian Eryngium maritimum L. essential oils were investigated using column chromatography, gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry in electron impact mode. Sixty-three compounds were identified accounting for 85.8–95.7% of the total amount. With germacrene D (13.7–45.9%), three uncommon oxygenated sesquiterpenes, 4βH-cadin-9-en-15-al (18.4–27.6%), 4βH-cadin-9-en-15-ol (2.2–14.3%) and 4βH-muurol-9-en-15-al (4.3–9.3%), were identified as main components of the essential oils obtained from the plant aerial parts. Relative to these, essential oils from the roots differed drastically with high contents of 2,4,5-trimethylbenzaldehyde (39.8%), 2,3,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde (29.0%) and α-muurolene (23.5%). The chemical variability of Corsican and Sardinian E. maritimum essential oils was studied using statistical analysis. A direct correlation between the island of origin of the sample essential oils and their chemical compositions was assessed. Corsican essential oils exhibited higher amounts of hydrocarbon terpenes than Sardinian samples. Relative to other Eryngium species, Corsican and Sardinian E. maritimum essential oils exhibited original compositions with sesquiterpene aldehydes. These compounds, together with total essential oil, were tested for antioxidant properties using the DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging activity tests. No meaningful activity could be attributed to sesquiterpene aldehydes and the corresponding alcohols but the total essential oil and the oxygenated fraction of E. maritimum both demonstrated strong antioxidant properties. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The study of the chemical variability of Corsican and Sardinian Eryngium maritimum essential oils showed a direct correlation between the island origins of the sample essential oils and their chemical compositions. Corsican samples exhibited higher amounts of hydrocarbon terpenes than did Sardinian samples. Both E. maritimum essential oils exhibited original compositions with uncommon sesquiterpene aldehydes. No meaningful activity could be attributed to sesquiterpene aldehydes but E. maritimum essential oil demonstrated strong antioxidant properties.

Dried flowers from Solandra maxima were hydrodistilled yielding 0.3% of essential oil; the yield could be slightly increased when the flowers were subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis using β-glucosidase prior to hydrodistillation. The two samples were subjected to a comparative investigation by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. About 70 compounds were identified in both samples, representing more than 95% of the total. The main constituents were linalool (12.4% and 17.9%), methyl salicylate (9.1% and 11.4%), safranal (3.8% and 5.7%), α-terpineol (2.0% and 4.5%), geraniol (2.6% and 3.6%), carvacrol (17.8% and 11.5%), (E)-nerolidol (3.4% and 4.3%) and benzyl salicylate (11.1% and 7.1%). Alcohols, phenols and esters were the major classes, the concentration of alcohols being distinctly higher in the sample obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The volatile constituents obtained by hydrodistillation and enzymatic hydrolysis followed by hydrodistillation of the flowers of Solandra maxima were analysed by GC-FID and GC-MS. About 70 compounds were identified in both samples, representing more than 95% of the total. The main constituents were linalool (12.4% and 17.9%), methyl salicylate (9.1% and 11.4%), safranal (3.8% and 5.7%), α-terpineol (2.0% and 4.5%), geraniol (2.6% and 3.6%), carvacrol (17.8% and 11.5%), (E)-nerolidol (3.4% and 4.3%) and benzyl salicylate (11.1% and 7.1%).

Phytochemicals have been isolated from extracts of various Xylopia species (Annonaceae) growing wild in the African rainforest. In contrast, no phytochemical investigations have been reported to date on Xylopia rubescens Oliv. The aim of the present work was to describe the composition of X. rubescens leaf oil. Analysis of the leaf oil has been undertaken by a combination of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. Three new compounds have been isolated and their structures elucidated as furanoguaia-1,4-diene, furanoguaia-1,3-diene and (8Z,11Z,14Z)-8,11,14-heptadecatrien-2-ol. One other compound is reported for the first time as a natural compound. The oil composition was dominated by both furanoguaiadienes (34.2% and 11.4%, respectively) and by (8Z,11Z,14Z)-8,11,14-heptadecatrien-2-one (12.8%). The composition of X. rubescens leaf oil varied dramatically from those of the essential oils isolated from other Xylopia species. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The composition of the sesquiterpene-rich Xylopia rubescens leaf oil has been investigated by gas chromotography (with retention indices), gas chromatography with mass spectrometry and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance. Three new compounds have been isolated and their structure elucidated as furanoguaia-1,4-diene (major component), furanoguaia-1,3-diene and (8Z,11Z,14Z)-8,11,14-heptadecatrien-2-ol. The composition of X. rubescens leaf oil varied dramatically from those of the essential oils isolated from others Xylopia species.

In bacteria, structural changes of outer membrane protein (OMP) composition may have an effect on the adhesive ability and pathogenic properties of the organisms. Pseudomonas aeruginosa can develop an intrinsic resistance to a wide range of biocides, which is associated with the nature of its outer membrane. The aim of our study was to examine how the essential oils of cinnamon bark and clove modify the OMP composition of the human pathogen P. aeruginosa strains and to identify the structure of proteins that are considerably changed after incubation with essential oils. Chemical composition of the oils was analysed by using gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Eugenol (83.7%) was the main component of the clove oil, while trans-cinnamic aldehyde (73.2%) was the main constituent in cinnamon bark oil. Values for the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the oils were determined by a modified tube dilution method. The oils were administered to the culture at concentrations of 0.5 × MIC and 2 × MIC and incubated for 60 min. After OMP preparation, the structure of proteins was analysed by MALDI-TOF/MS. Cinnamon and clove oil could influence the OMP composition of Pseudomonas strains. Proteins with molecular weights of 42.7 kDa and 79.4 kDa disappeared after treatment with cinnamon and clove oil, respectively. Quantitative changes in the protein profile may contribute to the explanation of the antibacterial effect of cinnamon bark and clove essential oils on pathogenic Pseudomonas strains. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Lab-on-a-chip technique was used in this study to demonstrate how essential oils influence bacterial outer membrane proteins (OMPs). Cinnamon and clove oil affected the OMP composition of Pseudomonas strains.

The chemical variability of the essential oils isolated from Moroccan chamomile [Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall.] full flowering aerial parts, was evaluated. C. mixtus populations were collected from nine regions in Morocco: Benguerir, Bouznika, Chefchaouane, Kenitra, Meknes, Oujda, Settat, Sidi Alal Ibahraoui and Tamesna. The essential oils were isolated by hydrodistillation and analysed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The yields of the essential oils ranged between 0.1% and 0.8% (v/d.w.). Only five of the nine essential oil samples analysed showed good correlation after agglomerative cluster analysis based on the chemical composition of the essential oils. These samples (Benguerir, Kenitra, Settat, Meknes and Tamesna) were characterized by the dominance of camphor (14–27%), β-myrcene (3–17%) and santolina triene (3–15%). All these and Chefchaouane essential oils showed a blue colour, whereas Oujda, Bouznika and Sidi Alal Ibahraoui essential oils were yellow. β-Myrcene (3–17%), trans-β-farnesene (18%) and 2-tridecanone (16%) dominated the Chefchaouane essential oil, whereas trans-β-farnesene (43%) was the main component in the Oujda essential oil. 2-Methyl-2-trans-butenyl methacrylate (34%) dominated sample Bouznika, while santolina alcohol and 1,8-cineole (17% and 12%, respectively) in the Sidi Alal Ibahraoui essential oil. The variability of Moroccan chamomile essential oil may reflect negatively upon its quality, biological activity and commercial value, thus harvests from the wild population should be avoided. To meet the high-quality standards and production efficiency, cultivation techniques adapted to local soil types and weather conditions, as well the correct selection of plant varieties most suited to the market should be followed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The essential oils isolated from the aerial parts of Moroccan chamomile [Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall.], collected from nine regions in Morocco, were evaluated. Only five of the nine oil samples analysed showed a good correlation after cluster analysis based on the chemical composition of the essential oils. The variability in Moroccan chamomile essential oil may reflect negatively on the quality of the essential oil, its biological activity and its commercial value. Thus, harvesting the wild populations should be avoided.

Most cases of oral malodour are thought to be due to microbial biofilms that form in the pits and fissures that exist on the dorsum of the tongue. The tongue microflora is mainly fed by saliva, but nutrient sources could also include exfoliated mammalian cells and tissue fluid (e.g. crevicular fluid) which may bring high concentrations of sulfur-containing substrates. In addition, consumed food could also contribute nutrients to a lesser degree. The collective microbial biofilm metabolism breaks down proteins, peptides and glycoproteins into cell transportable monomers, including sugars and amino acids. A significant portion of the biofilm can convert nutrient substrates into volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including odiferous volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). A number of in vitro biofilm models have been developed to study the generation and inhibition of microbial oral malodour. Dynamic steady-state models coupled with real-time monitoring of VOCs seems to offer advantages over models based on batch sampling from batch culture. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Most cases of oral malodour are thought to be due to microbial biofilms that form in the pits and fissures that exist on the dorsum of the tongue. The tongue microflora is mainly fed by saliva, but nutrient sources could also include exfoliated mammalian cells and tissue fluid (e.g. crevicular fluid) which may bring high concentrations of sulfur-containing substrates. In addition, consumed food could also contribute nutrients to a lesser degree. The collective microbial biofilm metabolism breaks down proteins, peptides and glycoproteins into cell transportable monomers, including sugars and amino acids. A significant portion of the biofilm can convert nutrient substrates into volatile organic compounds, including odiferous volatile sulfur compounds. A number of in vitro biofilm models have been developed to study the generation and inhibition of microbial oral malodour. Dynamic steady-state models coupled with real-time monitoring of volatile organic compounds seems to offer advantages over models based on batch sampling from batch culture.

The chemical structure of human body odorants and the enzymatic pathways for their release from amino acid conjugates by skin bacteria have been elucidated in recent years. These findings open up theoretical avenues for an added layer of malodour prevention by blocking the cleavage of malodour precursors. Previously, we had validated in vitro an alternative substrate that releases a fragrance molecule instead of a malodour acid upon the action of a corynebacterial N^α-acyl-glutamine-aminoacylase. In order to assess whether this concept delivers a perceivable reduction of malodour in vivo, a number of studies were performed: (1) a controlled clinical study with expert assessment, (2) a blinded study with consumer self-assessment of a placebo versus an active formulation in left–right comparison, and (3) a longitudinal consumer study comparing two doses of the active versus a placebo formulation. A statistically significant benefit for malodour reduction was observed in all three studies, this benefit consistently seen on panellists with a higher self- or expert-perceived malodour, whereas there was no difference in panellists with a lower level of malodour formation. In addition, malodour formation was higher in panellists with noticeable cleavage of the alternative substrate, indicating a correlation between enzyme activity and malodour levels. These results indicate that the targeted enzyme is a relevant source of malodour on panellists suffering from strong body odour, and that malodour reduction on these panellists is possible by specifically targeting this enzyme. Whereas the absolute reduction of malodour with the tested substrates was relatively small, the studies presented here clearly validate N^α-acyl-glutamine-aminoacylase as a target for deodorant actives, and they demonstrate that a significant benefit can be achieved especially in individuals developing stronger axillary odour. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An alternative substrate that was designed to release an odorant instead of a malodorant upon action of the human axillary malodor releasing enzyme was tested in vivo. A significant malodor reduction was observed in three independent studies, this benefit consistently seen on panellists with a higher malodor levels. This indicates that the targeted enzyme is a relevant source of malodor on panellists suffering from strong body odour and that malodor reduction on these panellists is possible by specifically targeting this enzyme.

In this study we tested the anti-Candida effect of Thymbra capitata essential oil (EO) plus chitosan and developed a new therapeutic tool. The classical check-board methodology was used to determine the anti-Candida activity that results from product association. The incorporation of T. capitata EO in a chitosan hydrogel, using lactic acid as the solvent, resulted in the TCCH hydrogel. Its anti-Candida activity was studied by using 18 Candida strains, according to the CLSI M27-A3 micromethod and the lethal effect according to the protocol proposed by Canton et al. The TCCH activity in acidic conditions corresponding to a healthy vaginal pH (4.5) was also tested. Its anti-Candida activity upon pre-formed biofilm metabolism and biomass was tested using the semi-quantitative XTT reduction assay and the crystal violet staining assay, respectively. The hydrogel interaction with the yeast surface was shown by confocal microscopy. TCCH hydrogel presented an acidic nature, compatible with the vaginal pH. The association of both natural products revealed an additive effect upon Candida and TCCH hydrogel showed to be active upon both Candida planktonic and biofilms. No cell invasion was observed. Being a new product with an acidic nature compatible with the vaginal environment and presenting a potent effect upon Candida planktonic and biofilm cells, TCCH hydrogel could represent a valuable tool for the treatment of vulvovaginal candidosis. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

New therapeutic tool for the treatment of mucocutaneous candidosis, resulting from the association of Thymbra capitata essential oil and chitosan. The hydrogel exhibits a clear antifungal effect upon both planktonic cells and pre-formed biofilms of susceptible and resistant strains to classic therapy.

The typical stale urine odour is the consequence of thermal or bacterial degradation. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, equipped with a multi-sniffing port for olfactive evaluation (GC-MS-O), was performed to analyse an organic extract of boiled urine originating from seven male donors. This analysis stressed the importance of guaiacol, 2-methoxy-4- and -6-methyl phenol, 4-vinyl-guaiacol, indole, skatole and vanillin in urine malodour. Analysis of the headspace of the highly volatile compounds showed the occurrence of trimethylamine, methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide. However, odour artefacts such as pyrazines, acetyl thiazole and sugar degradation products were formed during the boiling process and represented important background noise. In parallel, fermented urine samples were judged by sniffing to be more characteristic of a urine smell, due to the presence of methional, phenol, p-cresol and α-androstenol. The two urine-isolated Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia fergusonii and Morganella morganii (urease positive), were particularly efficient at increasing urine pH and generating phenol, p-cresol, indole, dimethyl sulfide and trimethylamine after 3 days of incubation of sterile male urine at 37 °C. Streptococcus agalactiae produced a high level of α-androstenol, whereas Micrococcus luteus CIP 103664 and isolated anaerobic bacteria did not produce any malodours. Analytical comparisons between boiled and fermented aged urine revealed that incubation of sterile urine with a bacterial mixture of E. fergusonii, Enterococcus faecalis, Citrobacter koseri, S. agalactiae and M. morganii produced a representative aged urine odour. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Typical stale urine odour is the consequence of thermal or bacterial degradation. Analytical work on aged, boiled and fermented urine has shown the importance of guaiacol, 2-methoxy-4- and -5-methyl phenol, 4-vinyl-guaiacol, indole, skatole and the highly volatile compounds trimethylamine, methyl mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide in the smell of urine. The urine bacteria Escherichia fergusonii, Morganella morganii and Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from healthy male subjects were particularly efficient in producing some of those volatiles.

Human body odour is often associated with negative attributions, hence the term ‘malodour’. Another perspective is that odours contain biologically meaningful information involved in communication of social cues, notably in perception of suitable mates. This evolutionarily informed perspective indicates that we retain capacity to infer mate quality through olfaction (e.g. preferring odours of high-quality or genetically compatible individuals). From either perspective, knowing the extent to which body odour is stable over time is important: either in order to fully understand how perfumes might interact with body odour or whether the biological cues gained from odour are reliable. In addition, from the second perspective, odour-based mate preferences should also be relatively stable over time, especially if both traits and preferences are genetically influenced. Here we measured repeatability in young women of body odour preferences for male odours, over a 3-month period. We also compare stability of body odour preferences with that of preferences for faces and fragrances. We find that preferences for all stimuli were highly repeatable over time. Since the odour stimuli used were repeated samples from the same set of men, repeatability of preferences also indicates odour constancy of individuals over time. Our results on both odour constancy and repeatability of preference have implications for the perfume industry and also lend weight to the assumption that body odour constitutes a meaningful cue of quality that can be used in individual assessment during human interactions. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Men's axillary odour and women's preferences for body odour, fragrances and faces are all highly repeatable over a 3-month period.

The retention of malodours, especially sweat on fabrics, is a widely discussed problem in the textile industry and science. Since a quantitative analysis of the retention of sweat odour molecules on fibres has not been addressed so far, we used liquid scintillation counting to measure the adhesion/dehesion of ¹⁴C-labelled isovaleric acid, a lead substance of sweat odour, to knitted fabrics of comparable textile structure made of pure cotton, wool or polyester. Significant retention differences were detected, with polyester showing the highest release of isovaleric acid after 3 h and 20 h. Fabric finishes with β-cyclodextrin enhanced odour retention on cotton and polyester considerably. To study local influences of the clothing materials on odour release, we simulated in diffusion chamber cells a fabric/human skin wear situation using an artificial skin with skin-like composition, topology and mechanical characteristics. Unidirectional transepidermal water vapour release of the skin model modulated the odour retention. Finally, all samples were subjected to a sensory evaluation test with trained panellists using olfactometry and a non-labelled artificial sweat containing isovaleric acid as lead substance. Again, polyester showed little retention capacities, whereas the cyclodextrin finish enhanced binding of the artificial sweat and thus reduced its perception. The phase II approach revealed that perceived malodour intensity clearly depended on the finish and fibre type. The presented data and methods provide a basis for future optimization of clothes in terms of sweat odour management in their respective end uses, e.g. sport or business activities. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The presented data and methods on the retention of sweat odour on fabrics provide a basis for future optimisation of clothes in terms of sweat odour management. We measured by liquid scintillation counting the adhesion/dehesion of ¹⁴C-labeled isovaleric acid, a lead substance of sweat odour, to knitted jerseys of comparable textile structure made of pure cotton, wool or polyester. Significant retention differences were detected and confirmed by sensory evaluation.

Although foot malodour is a common consumer problem, the range of products available to combat the condition is fairly limited. In part, this is due to an incomplete understanding of how the key odorants are generated by microorganisms resident on the skin. The aim of these studies was to identify the key chemical components of foot malodour, the organisms and metabolic pathways responsible for their production, and to develop model systems to study these processes in vitro. Using gas chromatography with simultaneous mass spectrometry and sniff port detection, volatile fatty acids were implicated as foot malodorants, with isovaleric acid particularly prominent. l-Leucine was identified as the likely substrate, and the source of this branched amino acid postulated to be the degradation of foot callus. An in vitro assay was employed to screen a library of isolated foot bacteria for their ability to generate isovaleric acid from l-leucine. Staphylococcus species were found to be the main producers, while some Brevibacterium, Micrococcus and Kytococcus isolates fully catabolized isovaleric acid and l-leucine, indicating the dynamic nature of odour production. The degradation of foot callus by Kytococcus sedentarius was investigated, and an in vitro ‘foot malodour model’ developed, demonstrating the generation of isovaleric acid using a combination of partially purified K. sedentarius keratinases and a Staphylococcus species. The results of these studies provide new understanding on the microbiological and biochemical origins of foot malodour which, in turn, should lead to the development of novel deodorant systems for this part of the body. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Studies were undertaken to identify the main chemical components of foot malodour, as well as the organisms and metabolic pathways responsible for their production. A key outcome was the development of an in vitro ‘foot malodour model’, demonstrating isovaleric acid generation using a combination of partially purified Kytococcus sedentarius keratinases and a Staphylococcus species. These results provide new understanding on the microbiological and biochemical origins of foot malodour, which should lead to the development of novel deodorant systems.

In our daily lives we are confronted with various kinds of malodour problems. Detailed analysis at the molecular level of the malodorous constituents with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and gas chromatography–olfactometry can be used to identify the key chemicals responsible for the malodours, and such information can provide novel starting points for the development of new deodorants. This paper describes two characteristic sources of malodour in daily life: axillary and laundry malodour. Detailed analytical studies identified specific major contributors to these malodours: 3-hydroxy-3-methylhexanoic acid, 3-mercapto-3-methylhexan-1-ol and 4-methyl-3-hexenoic acid. Biochemical and microbiological studies then elucidated the mechanisms generating these odours and proved the involvement of microbes in odour formation. In this review, we discuss the importance of the branched C7 chain, which is common to all the major volatile substances identified in these studies and perceived by the human nose with an extraordinary sensitivity. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In daily life we are confronted with various kinds of malodour problems. GC-MS and GC-O can be used to identify key chemicals responsible for malodours, and such information can provide novel starting points for the development of new deodorants. This paper describes two characteristic sources of malodour in daily life: axillary and laundry malodour.

Volatile phenols have been considered as a class of highly flavour-active compounds in non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages. However, the information on volatile phenols in Chinese liquors remains limited. This article presents a high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) method for the determination of 10 volatile phenols in Chinese liquors. The method was based on the fluorescent nature of volatile phenols, the separation of the isomers p-cresol and m-cresol with β-cyclodextrin as the resolving agent, and the use of a protective barrier layer for the capture of volatile phenols during the concentration process of the extract solution. The effects of several experimental parameters on recoveries of target volatile phenols were investigated. The correlation coefficients (R²) for calibration curves of the 10 phenols studies were in the range 0.9991–0.9998 when the linearity range was from 0.05 to 4 µg/ml. The proposed RP-HPLC method was successfully applied to the analysis of Chinese liquors and the recoveries of the phenols were in the range 91.5–100.4% with RSD 0.9–2.2%, and the limits of detection were 0.0072–0.0234 µg/ml. Volatile phenols of different types and in differing amounts were found in several Chinese liquors. The method could be of use for routine evaluation of the quantity of volatile phenols during the production and ageing process of Chinese liquors. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Volatile phenols have been considered as a class of highly flavour-active compounds in non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages. However, the information on volatile phenols in Chinese liquors remains limited. An HPLC-FLD method for the determination of 10 volatile phenols in Chinese liquors is presented. The method was based on the fluorescent nature of volatile phenols, the separation of p-cresol and m-cresol with β-cyclodextrin as the resolving agent, and the use of a protective barrier layer for the capture of volatile phenols during the concentration process of the extract solution. The effects of several experimental parameters on recoveries of target volatile phenols were investigated. The correlation coefficients (R2) for calibration curves of the 10 phenols studied were in the range 0.9991-0.9998 when the linearity range was from 0.05 to 4 µg/ml. The proposed RP-HPLC method was successfully applied to the analysis of Chinese liquors. Recoveries of the phenols were in the range 91.5-100.4% with RSD 0.9-2.2%. The limits of detection were 0.0072-0.0234 µg/ml. Volatile phenols of different types and in differing amounts were found in several Chinese liquors. The method could be used for routine evaluation of the quantity of volatile phenols during the production and ageing of Chinese liquors.

Six lavender essential oils, L. angustifolia and five Lavandula x hybrida cultivars (Super Z, Abrialis, R.C., Alardii and Ordinario), were evaluated from a phytochemical and biological standpoint, and the results were computed by using multivariate data analysis. The essential oils were analysed by gas chromatography, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and headspace gas-chromatography. Multivariate analyses (principal component analysis) identified three main phytochemical clusters among lavender essential oils, represented by 1,8-cineole, linalyl acetate and linalool. Functional properties of the essential oils were checked by (1) estimating cytotoxicity and genotoxicity using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae D7 strain; (2) determining antifungal activity against three common phytopathogens (Pythium ultimum, Magnaporthe grisea and Botrytis cinerea), by performing an agar vapour bioassay; and (3) calculating the antioxidant capacity by using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and β-carotene bleaching tests. No mutagenic effects were detected, but multivariate analyses (PLS, partial least squares regression) showed that the essential oils belonging to the linalool cluster were the most cytotoxic. Antifungal activity against phytopathogens confirmed the predictive results of PLS. The differences among lavender essential oils regarding weak antioxidant capacity showed a positive relationship between the high polarity compounds and the DPPH method, as determined by PLS. The opposite effect was shown for the same type of compound and β-carotene. Ketones and esters did not exert any significant antioxidant activity. In conclusion, taking lavender essential oils as a model and computing multivariate data of a reduced number of parameters, the proposed approach assured the description of the relationship between a phytocomplex, its constituents and bioactivities, and allowed a comprehensive, predictive approach to be defined, for which the chemical profile provides a possible synergic overall effort in terms of applicative perspectives. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Six lavender essential oils were evaluated from a phytochemical and biological standpoint. The results were computed by using multivariate data analysis, which identified three main phytochemical clusters. Functional properties of the oils were checked by estimating cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, antifungal activity, and antioxidant capacity. Taking these oils as a model and computing multivariate data of a reduced number of parameters led to a description of the relationship between the phytocomplex, its constituents and bioactivities, and allowed an approach where the chemical profile provides a possible synergic overall effort in terms of applicative perspectives.

Sauvignon blanc wines often have complex aromatic profiles with flavours ranging from herbaceous to tropical. The formation of volatiles during fermentation is critical for the aromatic bouquet of a wine. Oxygen and sulfur dioxide additions to the must can influence the formation of these compounds. However, the effect of different, controlled oxygen and sulfur dioxide additions to Sauvignon blanc must and the changes it induces in the corresponding wines has not been investigated in detail. The present study evaluated how controlled oxygen and sulfur dioxide additions to Sauvignon blanc must affects the levels of volatile and non-volatile compounds, including the methoxypyrazines, volatile thiols, esters, alcohols, fatty acids, monoterpenes, glutathione and phenolics. It was evident that the presence of sulfur dioxide resulted in wines with higher concentrations of certain compounds. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The additions of different sulphur dioxide and oxygen levels to Sauvignon blanc must were investigated to elucidate the effect on various volatile and non-volatile compounds in the must and wine.

This study examined anxiolytic effects of lavender oil on brain serotonin levels and anxiety-related behaviours of rats. The experimental rats were divided into five groups, which respectively received inhalation of saline, 1.25% lavender oil, 2.5% lavender oil, chlordiazepoxide (CDP), and 2.5% lavender oil co-administered with CDP. Anxiety was induced in rats using animal models including Elevated Plus Maze and Open Field. The levels of serotonin in the pre-frontal cortex and striatum of the rats, the anxiolytic effects of lavender oil and its augmentation effect as to co-administration with CDP were evaluated. The neurophysiological findings showed that groups receiving lavender oils, CDP, and 2.5% lavender oils co-administered with CDP had significantly higher level of serotonin in the pre-frontal cortex. However, the anxiolytic behavioural effects of lavender oil were found to have mixed results. This study provided preliminary evidence that inhalation of lavender oil paralleled effects of CDP in up-regulating synthesis of serotonin in rat pre-frontal cortex, and the co-administration of CDP with 2.5% lavender oil tended to augment effect of CDP on serotonin in their pre-frontal cortex and striatum. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Inhalation of lavander oil paralleled effects of Chloradiazepoxide (CDP) in up-regulating synthesis of serotonin in rat pre-frontal cortex: and the co-administration of CDP with 2.5% lavander oil tended to augment effect of CDP on serotonin in their pre-frontal cortex and striatum.

2-Sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate and acetate were synthesized without purification steps, quantified with a pulsed flame photometric equimolar detector, and characterized by comparison with commercially available 3-sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate and acetate (retention indexes, mass spectra, odour descriptors, and intensities). Both formates exhibited a typical ribes flavour, in contrast to both acetates, which were much more piquant. The sensorial threshold of 3-sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate was much lower (57 ng/l in beer, BE-GC-LoADS = 0.0006 ng) than those measured for the three other esters. Only 3-sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate was perceived at the sniffing port in beer extracts. Concentrations up to 1230 ng/l were measured in pilot beers after 1 month at 20°C, although the compounds are rarely detected in commercial beers with highly oxygen-protected bottling. Accelerated ageing in the presence of oxygen confirmed the key role of oxygen. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

2-Sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate and acetate were synthesized, and characterized by comparison with commercially available 3-sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate and acetate (retention indexes, mass spectra, odour descriptors, and intensities). Only 3-sulfanyl-3-methylbutyl formate was perceived at the sniffing port in beer extracts and concentrations up to 1230 ng/L were measured in pilot beers after one month at 20°C, although the compounds are rarely detected in commercial beers with highly oxygen-protected bottling. Accelerated ageing in the presence of oxygen confirmed the key role of oxygen.

The volatile constituents of ‘Blue Moon’ and ‘Blue Perfume’ rose flowers, which, on an olfactory basis, are classified as a ‘blue type’ were analysed using Aromascope® technology (modified headspace technology) and solvent extraction methods followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis. One hundred and eighty components were identified in the headspace volatile components of ‘Blue Moon’ flower and 188 components were identified in solvent extracts. Among them, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, 1,3-dimethoxy-5-methylbenzene and dihydro-β-ionol were identified as the main odour components. On the other hand, in ‘Blue Perfume’, 165 components were identified in the headspace volatile components and 150 components were identified in solvent extracts. Among them, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, neral, and geranial were identified as the major odour compounds. From both rose flowers, three components were newly identified: 2-isopropyl-4-methylthiazole, (Z)-cyclododec-9-enolide (yuzu lactone), and methyl cis-(Z)-jasmonate. 2-Isopropyl-4-methylthiazole and methyl cis-(Z)-jasmonate were identified in both of the headspace components and solvent extracts of the two types of rose flower, and then yuzu lactone was identified only in solvent extracts as the one of the minor components. Several components identified in both flowers have asymmetric carbon atoms in their molecules, leading us to analyse their chirality. For the first time, the enantiomer ratios of linalool, (E)-nerolidol, theaspiranes and dihydro-β-ionol could be assigned by multi-dimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The results were as follows in both rose flowers. The ratio of the (S)-enantiomer vs. the (R)-enantiomer of linalool was 8:92. Only the (S)-enantiomer was detected for (E)-nerolidol and dihydro-β-ionol. The ratios of the (2R,5R)-enantiomer vs. the (2S,5S)-enantiomer in theaspirane A and the (2R,5S)-enantiomer vs. the (2S,5R)-enantiomer in theaspirane B were about 4:96. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The volatile constituents of Blue Moon and Blue Perfume species, which were classified blue type depend on its scent in the HT roses, were analyzed using Aromascope® technology and solvent extraction method followed by GC-MS analysis. And geraniol, citronellol, nerol, 1,3-dimethoxy-5-methylbenzene (DMMB), dihydro-β-ionol and geranial were identified as the main odor components. Then, three components were newly identified, 2-isopropyl-4-methyl-thiazole with a characteristic pungent vegetable tropical notes, (Z)-yuzu lactone, and methyl cis-(Z)-jasmonate. The chiral analysis results were followings in both rose flowers. The ratio of (S)-isomer vs (R)-isomer of linalool was 8:92. Only (3S)-enantiomer was detected for trans-nerolidol. The ratio of (2S)-isomer vs (2R)-isomer in theaspirane A and theaspirane B were about 96:4. Finally, no absolute stereochemistry determined for dihydro-β-ionol, only (+)-isomer was present.

The genotoxic activity of 15 essential oil constituents used as flavouring agents or cosmetic ingredients was assessed at four concentrations (2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 µl/ml) using the Drosophila melanogaster (Meigen) somatic mutation and recombination test, also known as the wing spot test. Ten of the compounds tested here, namely d-neomenthol, nerol, 1-octen-3-ol, α-terpineol, neryl acetate, terpinyl acetate, p-cymene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene were found free of mutagenic or recombinogenic activity, at the applied concentrations. On the other hand, for (1R)-(−)-myrtenol and linalyl acetate, weak positive effects were exhibited even at the lowest concentration. For myrtenyl acetate, weakly positive effects were recorded at the high but not at the low concentrations. The two hydrocarbons, γ-terpinene and terpinolene, showed no genotoxic activity at the low concentrations, but at the high ones they significantly increased the frequency of mutant clones. Results clearly demonstrate differences in activity of positional isomers such as α- and γ-terpinene and terpinolene. Our data suggest the need for re-evaluating the safety of suspect compounds with cross-checked genotoxicity studies and at a range of different concentrations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The genotoxic activity of 15 essential oil constituents used as flavouring agents or cosmetic ingredients was assessed using the Drosophila melanogaster SMART test. Ten of the compounds were found free of mutagenic or recombinogenic activity; three exhibited weak positive effects; while two significantly increased the frequency of mutant clones at the high concentrations tested. Our data suggest the need for re-evaluating the safety of suspect compounds with cross-checked genotoxicity studies and at a range of different concentrations.