The influence of the geomagnetic field-removed environment on Arabidopsis growth was investigated by cultivation of the plants in a near-null magnetic field and local geomagnetic field (45 µT) for the whole growth period under laboratory conditions. The biomass accumulation of plants in the near-null magnetic field was significantly suppressed at the time when plants were switching from vegetative growth to reproductive growth compared with that of plants grown in the local geomagnetic field, which was caused by a delay in the flowering of plants in the near-null magnetic field. At the early or later growth stage, no significant difference was shown in the biomass accumulation between the plants in the near-null magnetic field and local geomagnetic field. The average number of siliques and the production of seeds per plant in the near-null magnetic field was significantly lower by about 22% and 19%, respectively, than those of control plants. These resulted in a significant reduction of about 20% in the harvest index of plants in the near-null magnetic field compared with that of the controls. These results suggest that the removal of the local geomagnetic field negatively affects the reproductive growth of Arabidopsis, which thus affects the yield and harvest index. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The US FCC mandates the testing of all mobile phones to demonstrate compliance with the rule requiring that the peak spatial SAR does not exceed the limit of 1.6 W/kg averaged over any 1 g of tissue. These test data, measured in phantoms with mobile phones operating at maximum antenna input power, permitted us to evaluate the variation in SARs across mobile phone design factors such as shape and antenna design, communication technology, and test date (over a 7-year period). Descriptive statistical summaries calculated for 850 MHz and 1900 MHz phones and ANOVA were used to evaluate the influence of the foregoing factors on SARs. Service technology accounted for the greatest variability in compliance test SARs that ranged from AMPS (highest) to CDMA, iDEN, TDMA, and GSM (lowest). However, the dominant factor for SARs during use is the time-averaged antenna input power, which may be much less than the maximum power used in testing. This factor is largely defined by the communication system; e.g., the GSM phone average output can be higher than CDMA by a factor of 100. Phone shape, antenna type, and orientation of a phone were found to be significant but only on the order of up to a factor of 2 (3 dB). The SAR in the tilt position was significantly smaller than for touch. The side of the head did not affect SAR levels significantly. Among the remaining factors, external antennae produced greater SARs than internal ones, and brick and clamshell phones produced greater SARs than slide phones. Assuming phone design and usage patterns do not change significantly over time, we have developed a normalization procedure and formula that permits reliable prediction of the relative SAR between various communication systems. This approach can be applied to improve exposure assessment in epidemiological research. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This report shows that the background magnetic field in biological incubators can vary by orders of magnitude within and between incubators. These variations can be observed within the same incubator in locations that are centimeters apart from each other as well as between incubators that are identical and located in the same laboratory. Additionally, the values measured were frequently outside the range of magnitudes found naturally on the Earth's surface or ordinary habitation spaces. Exposure to such altered magnetic field environments has been experimentally shown to be sufficient to cause numerous effects in cell cultures. Examples of the effects reported span from differential generation of free radicals and heat shock proteins to differences in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and death. Although the effects are not well established and the molecular mechanism of action is currently under debate, these observations alone support the notion that the inhomogeneity of the background magnetic field in incubators is a potential confounding source of the variability and reproducibility for studies performed on cell cultures. In this regard, it is recommended that special measures be adopted to control the background magnetic fields in incubators when investigating the biological effects of exposure to magnetic fields of comparable characteristics as the ones measured in this study, or when studying small biological effects in general. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recent studies have demonstrated that the Ku70 gene fragment can be placed in the anti-sense orientation under the control of a heat-inducible heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) promoter and activated through heat shock exposure. This results in attenuation of the Ku70 protein expression, inhibiting cellular repair processes, and sensitizing the transfected cells to exposures such as the ionizing radiation exposures used clinically. However, achieving the tissue temperatures necessary to thermally induce the HSP70 response presents significant limitations to the clinical application of this strategy. Previous findings suggest an alternative approach to inducing a heat shock response, specifically through the use of extremely low frequency (ELF) electrical field stimulation. To further pursue this approach, we investigated HSP70 responses in transfected rat primary fibroblast (RAT1) cells exposed to 10 Hz electric fields at intensities of 20–500 V/m. We confirmed that low frequency electric fields can induce HSP70 heat shock expression, with peak responses obtained at 8 h following a 2 h field exposure. However, the approximate threefold increase in expression is substantially lower than that obtained using thermal stimulation, raising questions of the clinical utility of the response. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The present investigation reports the changes in the electrical properties of hepatic tissue in the frequency range of 100 Hz to 5 MHz at an early stage of liver carcinogenesis using the four-pin electrode method. The hepatocarcinogenesis model was developed by intraperitoneal injection of N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) to male Balb/c mice. Histopathological assessment revealed high-grade dysplasia in the liver of NDEA-treated animals. The ultrastructural investigations indicated the presence of large and clumped cells with inconspicuous cell boundaries. The treatment resulted in significant changes in the dielectric properties of the tissues. A decrease in tissue conductivity along with an increase in relative permittivity was observed. The biophysical changes correlated well with histoarchitectural and morphological changes. The alterations in architectural arrangement and membrane structure of cells may be responsible for the observed changes in the dielectric properties. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Platelets are subjected to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields during standard aggregometry measurements owing to the use of a magnetic stir bar in the instrument. This study evaluates the effects of this magnetic field exposure on platelet aggregation by comparing the results obtained in a modified aggregometer. Blood samples from healthy volunteers were anticoagulated using citrate or heparin. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) samples were prepared. A mechanical stirring device was attached to the aggregometer instead of the magnetic stir bar system. The PRP samples were stirred using a stirring rod tip that did not produce any magnetic fields in one channel of the aggregometer; in the other channel, a stirring rod carrying a small magnet at its tip was used. As a result, a magnetic field in the extremely low frequency range and in the amplitude range of 1.9–65 mT was applied to the platelets assigned to the channel where the magnetic stirring rod tip was used. Aggregation was induced using adenosine diphosphate (ADP), collagen, or epinephrine. The slopes, maximum aggregation values, and areas under the aggregation curves were compared between the magnetic and neutral stirring rod tip groups. For samples stirred with the magnetic stirring rod tip, a significant decrease was observed in 12 of the 14 parameters evaluated for aggregations induced with ADP or collagen compared to the neutral stirring rod tip, regardless of the method used for anticoagulation. This observation indicates that the magnetic stir bars used in standard aggregometry may significantly alter aggregation parameters and platelets may be possible targets of electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recent research demonstrated that exposure of mice to both inhomogeneous (3–477 mT) and homogeneous (145 mT) static magnetic fields (SMF) generated an analgesic effect toward visceral pain elicited by the intraperitoneal injection of 0.6% acetic acid. In the present work, we investigated behavioral responses such as writhing, entry avoidance, and site preference with the help of a specially designed cage that partially protruded into either the homogeneous (ho) or inhomogeneous (inh) SMF. Aversive effects, cognitive recognition of analgesia, and social behavior governed mice in their free locomotion between SMF and sham sides. The inhibition of pain response (I) for the 0–5, 6–20, and 21–30 min periods following the challenge was calculated by the formula I = 100 (1 − x/y) in %, where x and y represent the number of writhings in the SMF and sham sides, respectively. In accordance with previous measurements, an analgesic effect was induced in exposed mice (I_ho = 64%, P < 0.0002 and I_inh = 62%, P < 0.002). No significant difference was found in the site preference (SMF_{ho, inh} vs. sham) indicating that SMF is neither aversive nor favorable. Comparison of writhings observed in the sham versus SMF side of the cage revealed that SMF exposure resulted in significantly fewer writhings than sham (I_ho = 64%, P < 0.004 and I_inh = 81%, P < 0.03). Deeper statistical analysis clarified that the lateral SMF gradient between SMF and sham sides could be responsible for most of the analgesic effect (I_ho = 91%, P < 0.02 and I_inh = 54%, P < 0.02). Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A framework for the combination of near-field (NF) and far-field (FF) radio frequency electromagnetic exposure sources to the average organ and whole-body specific absorption rates (SARs) is presented. As a reference case, values based on numerically derived SARs for whole-body and individual organs and tissues are combined with realistic exposure data, which have been collected using personal exposure meters during the Swiss Qualifex study. The framework presented can be applied to any study region where exposure data is collected by appropriate measurement equipment. Based on results derived from the data for the region of Basel, Switzerland, the relative importance of NF and FF sources to the personal exposure is examined for three different study groups. The results show that a 24-h whole-body averaged exposure of a typical mobile phone user is dominated by the use of his or her own mobile phone when a Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) 900 or GSM 1800 phone is used. If only Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) phones are used, the user would experience a lower exposure level on average caused by the lower average output power of UMTS phones. Data presented clearly indicate the necessity of collecting band-selective exposure data in epidemiological studies related to electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Compliance with the established exposure limits for the electric field (E-field) induced in the human brain due to low-frequency magnetic field (B-field) induction is demonstrated by numerical dosimetry. The objective of this study is to investigate the dependency of dosimetric compliance assessments on the applied methodology and segmentations. The dependency of the discretization uncertainty (i.e., staircasing and field singularity) on the spatially averaged peak E-field values is first determined using canonical and anatomical models. Because spatial averaging with a grid size of 0.5 mm or smaller sufficiently reduces the impact of artifacts regardless of tissue size, it is a superior approach to other proposed methods such as the 99th percentile or smearing of conductivity contrast. Through a canonical model, it is demonstrated that under the same uniform B-field exposure condition, the peak spatially averaged E-fields in a heterogeneous model can be significantly underestimated by a homogeneous model. The frequency scaling technique is found to introduce substantial error if the relative change in tissue conductivity is significant in the investigated frequency range. Lastly, the peak induced E-fields in the brain tissues of five high-resolution anatomically realistic models exposed to a uniform B-field at ICNIRP and IEEE reference levels in the frequency range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz show that the reference levels are not always compliant with the basic restrictions. Based on the results of this study, a revision is recommended for the guidelines/standards to achieve technically sound exposure limits that can be applied without ambiguity. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

It has been suggested that exposure to electromagnetic fields may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in humans. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) modifications such as peroxidation and aggregation have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The present study investigated the effects of weak (0.125–0.5 mT) and moderate (1–4 mT) static magnetic fields (SMFs) on LDL oxidation, aggregation and zeta potential in vitro. Our results demonstrated that magnetic flux densities of 0.25 and 0.5 mT decreased, and magnetic flux densities of 3 and 4 mT increased the zeta potential and LDL oxidation in comparison with the control samples. All doses of SMFs increased the LDL aggregation in a time- and dose-dependent manner. It is concluded that SMFs can alter the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation and this alteration is dependent on the applied magnetic flux density. The SMF, in addition to its role in the production and stabilization of free radicals and promotion of lipid peroxidation, may influence the metabolism of lipoproteins and their interaction with other molecules such as apolipoproteins, enzymes and receptors through the alteration of the LDL zeta potential and its particles tendency to aggregation. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In this article, compliance boundaries and allowed output powers are determined for the front, back, and side of multiple-frequency base station antennas, based on the root-mean-squared electric field, the whole-body averaged specific absorption rate (SAR), and the 10 g averaged SAR in both the limbs and the head and trunk. For this purpose, the basic restrictions and reference levels defined by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) for both the general public and occupational exposure are used. The antennas are designed for Global System for Mobile Communications around 900 MHz (GSM900), GSM1800, High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), and Long Term Evolution (LTE), and are operated with output powers at the individual frequencies up to 300 W. The compliance boundaries are estimated using finite-difference time-domain simulations with the Virtual Family Male and have been determined for three directions with respect to the antennas for 800, 900, 1800, and 2600 MHz. The reference levels are not always conservative when the radiating part of the antenna is small compared to the length of the body. Combined compliance distances, which ensure compliance with all reference levels and basic restrictions, have also been determined for each frequency. A method to determine a conservative estimation of compliance boundaries for multiple-frequency (cumulative) exposure is introduced. Using the errors on the estimated allowed powers, an uncertainty analysis is carried out for the compliance distances. Uncertainties on the compliance distances are found to be smaller than 122%. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In normal development and pathology, the vascular system depends on complex interactions between cellular elements, biochemical molecules, and physical forces. The electrokinetic vascular streaming potential (EVSP) is an endogenous extremely low frequency (ELF) electrical field resulting from blood flowing past the vessel wall. While generally unrecognized, it is a ubiquitous electrical biophysical force to which the vascular tree is exposed. Extracellular matrix elastin plays a central role in normal blood vessel function and in the development of atherosclerosis. It was hypothesized that ELF fields of low amplitude would alter elastin accumulation, supporting a link between the EVSP and the biology of vascular smooth muscle cells. Neonatal rat aortic smooth muscle cell cultures were exposed chronically to electrical fields characteristic of the EVSP. Extracellular protein accumulation, DNA content, and electron microscopic (EM) evaluation were performed after 2 weeks of exposure. Stimulated cultures showed no significant change in cellular proliferation as measured by the DNA concentration. The per-DNA normalized protein in the extracellular matrix was unchanged while extracellular elastin accumulation decreased 38% on average. EM analysis showed that the stimulated cells had a 2.85-fold increase in mitochondrial number. These results support the formulation that ELF fields are a potential factor in both normal vessel biology and in the pathogenesis of atherosclerotic diseases including heart disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The objective of the study was to investigate the influence of humidity on analyzing electric field exposure using extremely low frequency (ELF) electric field measurements. The study included 322 measurements in a climate room. We used two commercial three-axis meters, EFA-3 and EFA-300, and employed two measurement techniques in the climate room where we varied the temperature from 15 to 25 °C, the relative humidity from 55% to 95%, and the electric field from 1 to 25 kV/m. We calculated Pearson correlations between humidity and percentage errors for all data and for data at different levels of humidity. When the relative humidity was below 70%, the results obtained by the different measurement methods in terms of percentage errors were of the same order of magnitude for the considered temperatures and field strength, but the results were less reliable when the relative humidity was higher than 80%. In the future, it is important to take humidity into account when electric field measurement results will be compared to the values given in different exposure guidelines. Bioelectromagnetics. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In this paper, we compared the minimum potential differences in the electroporation of membrane lipid bilayers and the denaturation of membrane proteins in response to an intensive pulsed electric field with various pulse durations. Single skeletal muscle fibers were exposed to a pulsed external electric field. The field-induced changes in the membrane integrity (leakage current) and the Na channel currents were monitored to identify the minimum electric field needed to damage the membrane lipid bilayer and the membrane proteins, respectively. We found that in response to a relatively long pulsed electric shock (longer than the membrane intrinsic time constant), a lower membrane potential was needed to electroporate the cell membrane than for denaturing the membrane proteins, while for a short pulse a higher membrane potential was needed. In other words, phospholipid bilayers are more sensitive to the electric field than the membrane proteins for a long pulsed shock, while for a short pulse the proteins become more vulnerable. We can predict that for a short or ultrashort pulsed electric shock, the minimum membrane potential required to start to denature the protein functions in the cell plasma membrane is lower than that which starts to reduce the membrane integrity. Bioelectromagnetics 34:253–263, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This study is aimed at evaluating the effect of microwave radiation on human brain bioelectric activity at different levels of exposure. For this purpose, 450 MHz microwave exposure modulated at 40 Hz frequency was applied to a group of 15 healthy volunteers at two different specific absorption rate (SAR) levels: a higher level of 0.303 W/kg (field strength 24.5 V/m) and a lower level of 0.003 W/kg (field strength 2.45 V/m). Ten exposure cycles (1 min off and 1 min on) at fixed SAR values were applied. A resting eyes-closed electroencephalogram (EEG) was continuously recorded. Results showed a statistically significant increase in the EEG power in the EEG beta2 (157%), beta1 (61%) and alpha (68%) frequency bands at the higher SAR level, and in the beta2 (39%) frequency band at the lower SAR level. Statistically significant changes were detected for six individual subjects in the EEG alpha band and four subjects in the beta1 and beta2 bands at the higher SAR level; three subjects were affected in the alpha, beta1 and beta2 bands at the lower SAR level. The study showed that decreasing the SAR 100 times reduced the related changes in the EEG three to six times and the number of affected subjects, but did not exclude the effect. Bioelectromagnetics 34:264–274, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Adolescence is a critical developmental stage during which substantial remodeling occurs in brain areas involved in emotional and learning processes. Although a robust literature on the biological effects of extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MFs) has been documented, data on the effects of ELF-MF exposure during this period on cognitive functions remain scarce. In this study, early adolescent male mice were exposed from postnatal day (P) 23–35 to a 50 Hz MF at 2 mT for 60 min/day. On P36–45, the potential effects of the MF exposure on spatial memory performance were examined using the Y-maze and Morris water maze tasks. The results showed that the MF exposure did not affect Y-maze performance but improved spatial learning acquisition and memory retention in the water maze task under the present experimental conditions. Bioelectromagnetics 34:275–284, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

To research the effect of 27.2 MHz radiofrequency radiation on electrocardiograms (ECG), 225 female workers operating radiofrequency machines at a shoe factory were chosen as the exposure group and 100 female workers without exposure from the same factory were selected as the control group. The 6 min electric field strength that the female workers were exposed to was 64.0 ± 25.2 V/m (mean ± SD), which exceeded 61 V/m, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection reference root mean square levels for occupational exposure. A statistical difference was observed between the exposed group and the control group in terms of the rate of sinus bradycardia (χ² = 11.48, P = 0.003). When several known risk factors for cardiovascular disease were considered, including smoking, age, alcohol ingestion habit, and so on, the exposure duration was not an effective factor for ECG changes, sinus arrhythmia, or sinus bradycardia according to α = 0.05, while P = 0.052 for sinus arrhythmia was very close to 0.05. We did not find any statistical difference in heart rate, duration of the QRS wave (ventricular depolarization), or corrected QT intervals (between the start of the Q wave and end of the T wave) between the exposed and control groups. Occupational exposure to radiofrequency radiation was not found to be a cause of ECG changes after consideration of the confounding factors. Bioelectromagnetics 34:285–290, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Human exposure to millimeter wave (MMW) radiation is expected to increase in the next several years. In this work, we present a thermal model of the human eye under MMW illumination. The model takes into account the fluid dynamics of the aqueous humor and predicts a frequency-dependent reversal of its flow that also depends on the incident power density. The calculated maximum fluid velocity in the anterior chamber and the temperature rise at the corneal apex are reported for frequencies from 40 to 100 GHz and different values of incident power density. Bioelectromagnetics 34:291–299, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Human exposure to background radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) has been increasing with the introduction of new technologies. There is a definite need for the quantification of RF-EMF exposure but a robust exposure assessment is not yet possible, mainly due to the lack of a fast and efficient measurement procedure. In this article, a new procedure is proposed for accurately mapping the exposure to base station radiation in an outdoor environment based on surrogate modeling and sequential design, an entirely new approach in the domain of dosimetry for human RF exposure. We tested our procedure in an urban area of about 0.04 km² for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) technology at 900 MHz (GSM900) using a personal exposimeter. Fifty measurement locations were sufficient to obtain a coarse street exposure map, locating regions of high and low exposure; 70 measurement locations were sufficient to characterize the electric field distribution in the area and build an accurate predictive interpolation model. Hence, accurate GSM900 downlink outdoor exposure maps (for use in, e.g., governmental risk communication and epidemiological studies) are developed by combining the proven efficiency of sequential design with the speed of exposimeter measurements and their ease of handling. Bioelectromagnetics 34:300–311, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In our previous work we have shown that the age-dependent decrease in the magnetosensitivity of heart muscle hydration is accompanied by a dysfunction of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump. The reciprocal relation between the Na^+/K⁺ pump and Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange in development was suggested as a possible pathway for the age-dependent decrease in the magnetosensitivity of heart muscle hydration (water content). Because high and low affinity ouabain receptors in cell membranes are involved in Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchange and Na⁺/K⁺ pump functions, respectively, the effect of a 0.2 T static magnetic field (SMF) on dose-dependent, ouabain-induced hydration and [³H]-ouabain binding with heart muscle tissues in young, adult and older rats was studied. Three populations of receptors in membranes with high (10⁻¹¹–10⁻⁹ M), middle (10⁻⁹–10⁻⁷ M) and low (10⁻⁷–10⁻⁴ M) affinity to [³H]-ouabain were distinguished, which had specific dose-dependent [³H]-ouabain binding kinetics and effects on muscle hydration. The magnetosensitivity of [³H]-ouabain binding kinetics with high affinity receptors was prominent in all the three age groups of animals, while with low affinity receptors it was more expressed only in the young group of animals. All three types of receptors that caused modulations of muscle hydration were age dependent and magnetosensitive. Based on the obtained data we came to the conclusion that heart muscle hydration in young animals is more magnetosensitive due to the intense expression of high affinity ouabain receptors, which declines with aging. Bioelectromagnetics 34:312–322, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A randomized, active-controlled clinical trial was conducted to examine the effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) on women with postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMO) in southwest China. Forty-four participants were randomly assigned to receive alendronate or one course of PEMFs treatment. The primary endpoint was the mean percentage change in bone mineral density of the lumbar spine (BMDL), and secondary endpoints were the mean percentage changes in left proximal femur bone mineral density (BMDF), serum 25OH vitamin D3 (25(OH)D) concentrations, total lower-extremity manual muscle test (LE MMT) score, and Berg Balance Scale (BBS) score. The BMDL, BMDF, total LE MMT score and BBS score were recorded at baseline, 5, 12, and 24 weeks. Serum concentrations of 25(OH)D were measured at baseline and 5 weeks. Using a mixed linear model, there was no significant treatment difference between the two groups in the BMDL, BMDF, total LE MMT score, and BBS score (P ≥ 0.05). For 25(OH)D concentrations, the effects were also comparable between the two groups (P ≥ 0.05) with the Mann–Whitney's U-test. These results suggested that a course of PEMFs treatment with specific parameters was as effective as alendronate in treating PMO within 24 weeks. Bioelectromagnetics 34:323–332, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of static magnetic fields (SMF) on reactive oxygen species induced by X-ray radiation. The experiments were performed on lymphocytes from male albino Wistar rats. After exposure to 3 Gy X-ray radiation (with a dose rate of 560 mGy/min) the measurement of intracellular reactive oxygen species in lymphocytes, using a fluorescent probe, was done before exposure to the SMF, and after 15 min, 1 and 2 h of exposure to the SMF or a corresponding incubation time. For SMF exposure, 0 mT (50 µT magnetic field induction opposite to the geomagnetic field) and 5 mT fields were chosen. The trend of SMF effects for 0 mT was always opposite that of 5 mT. The first one decreased the rate of fluorescence change, while the latter one increased it. Bioelectromagnetics 34:333–336, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.