Field trials with perennial crops give rise to repeated measurements taken on the same plot on several occasions. It is important to account for serial correlation among repeated measurements in such trials. This study illustrates the use of mixed models for this purpose. We consider the analysis of trials conducted at several locations and the combination of trials with different starting years. A key issue in the analysis is the distinction between effects of calendar years, which are associated with external environmental variation, and harvest years, which represent internal yield formation processes of the perennial crop. Two methods of two-stage analysis are compared with single-stage analysis. It is shown that results of two-stage analysis are very similar to those of single-stage analysis, if serial correlation is properly taken into account. Program code for the MIXED procedure of the SAS system is given in an Appendix S1 for all considered cases.

A perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)-dominated sward on a well-drained soil (Experiment 1) and a creeping bent (Agrostis stolonifera L.)-dominated sward on a poorly drained soil (Experiment 2) were subjected to four treading treatments: control (C, no damage), light damage (L), moderate damage (M) or severe damage (S) to quantify the effects on herbage dry-matter (DM) production and tiller density. In Experiment 1, treading damage was imposed in spring. In Experiment 2, one-third of the site was damaged in autumn, one-third in spring and one-third in both spring and autumn. Both sites were rotationally grazed after treading treatments. Pre-grazing herbage mass was measured eight times in Experiment 1 and seven times in Experiment 2 on each plot, and tiller density was assessed four times in each experiment. In Experiment 1, pre-grazing herbage mass was reduced by 30% in S plots at the first harvest after damage, but cumulative pre-grazing herbage DM production was not different between treatments (12·7 t DM ha⁻¹). In Experiment 2, annual cumulative pre-grazing herbage mass was reduced by between 14 and 49%, depending on intensity of treading damage event and season when damage occurred. Tiller density was not affected by treatment in either experiment. A perennial ryegrass-dominated sward on a well-drained soil was resilient to heavy treading damage. A creeping bent-dominated sward on poorly drained soil requires a more careful grazing management approach to avoid major losses in cumulative pre-grazing herbage mass production during wet weather grazing events.

A 3-year study was conducted on a Prentiss sandy loam near Pheba, Mississippi to determine optimum berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) seeding rate (SR) for dry-matter (DM) yield and nutrient uptake in an annual clover–perennial bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon L. (Pers.)] sward, fertilized in April to October with swine effluent. Seed of annual berseem clover (cv. ‘Bigbee’) was drill-seeded in October at 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 kg ha⁻¹ and harvested either twice in April and May (spring) or once in May. Yield of clover harvested twice was less than that harvested once (5410 vs. 7566 kg ha⁻¹), but N and P uptake were greater in the double-harvest regime. Annual clover responses to SR were described by quadratic trends. Pooled across years and harvest regimes, the optimum SR for DM yield was 16·5 kg ha⁻¹ and for P, Cu and Zn uptake, it was 15·7, 14·8 and 16·0 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Bermudagrass DM yield decreased linearly as SR increased by approximately 6·3 and 66·7 kg DM kg seed⁻¹ in double- and single-harvest regimes, respectively. For clover–bermudagrass, the optimum SR for DM yield was 14·0 kg ha⁻¹, and for P, Cu, and Zn uptake, it was 15·1, 14·6 and 15·3 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. A SR of 14·0–14·9 kg ha⁻¹ and a first harvest of clover in April appeared to optimize hay yields and uptake of nutrients in clover–bermudagrass. Because bermudagrass N requirement is usually met by swine effluent irrigations, overseeding annual clover would chiefly satisfy producer needs for early forage production.

The literature about tannins, polyphenolic secondary metabolites of plants, with both beneficial and adverse function according to their concentration and chemical structure, is vast and often conflicting. Tannins in forages have often been described as antinutritional factors, but this review aims to update information on beneficial effects on animals and the environment. Although research on the relation between tannins and animal production and health, for example, dry-matter intake, digestibility, rumen fermentation and diseases, has mainly focused on condensed tannins, this review also discusses potential benefits from the use of hydrolysable tannins as a feed additive. Attention is given to the use of tannins in the mitigation of methane emissions from ruminants in forage-based feeding systems and as a natural and ecologically friendly resource for improvement of nutrient utilization and environmental sustainability in meat and dairy farming.

This study investigated the effect of using a trailing-shoe system to apply cattle slurry, under different conditions of grass height (low [LG]: freshly cut sward [4–5 cm height] vs. high [HG]: application delayed by 7–19 d and applied to taller grass sward [4–11 cm] height) and month of application (June vs. April), on the nitrogen fertilizer replacement value (NFRV) and apparent N recovery (ANR_S) of cattle slurry applied to grassland. NFRV was calculated using two methods: (i) NFRV_N based on the apparent recovery of slurry-N relative to that of mineral-N fertilizer; and (ii) NFRV_DM based on DM yield. The effect of applying slurry into HG swards, relative to LG swards, decreased the DM yield by 0·47 t ha⁻¹ (P ≤ 0·001), N uptake by 5 kg ha⁻¹ (P = 0·05), ANR_S by 0·05 kg kg⁻¹ (P = 0·036), NFRV_N by 0·05 kg kg⁻¹ (P = 0·090) and NFRV_DM by 0·11 kg kg⁻¹ (P < 0·001). It was concluded that the main factor causing these decreases with HG, compared with LG applications, was wheel damage affecting subsequent N uptake and growth of the taller grass sward.

The concept of sustainable intensification has recently been developed to raise productivity (as distinct from increasing volume of production) while reducing environmental impacts. This means increasing yields per unit of inputs (including nutrients, water, energy capital and land) as well as per unit of undesirable outputs (such as greenhouse gas emissions, water pollution or loss of biodiversity). It is thus helpful to understand ‘intensification’ as referring to ‘environmental factor productivity’ or ‘eco-efficiency’. Worldwide, grassland is the most important agroecosystem delivering ecosystem services ranging from feed supply for ruminants and soil carbon storage to habitats of biodiversity. However, worldwide, grassland is under threat due to intensified land use and land-use changes from grass to arable. In this article, we (i) highlight ecosystem services of selected grassland biomes abroad of Europe, (ii) show evidence of sustainable as well as non-sustainable intensification options in these grassland biomes linked to European agriculture by exports of agricultural commodities (e.g. soy) and (iii) derive research strategies for north-west European grassland research and management to match sustainable intensification strategies for the grassland-based dairy industry.

The objective of this study, which was part of a larger grazing-systems experiment, was to investigate the cumulative impact of three levels of grazing intensity on sward production, utilization and structural characteristics. Pastures were grazed by rotational stocking with Holstein–Friesian dairy cows from 10 February to 18 November 2009. Target post-grazing heights were 4·5 to 5 cm (high; H), 4 to 4·5 cm (intermediate; I) and 3·5 to 4 cm (low; L). Detailed sward measurement were undertaken on 0·08 of each farmlet area. There were no significant treatment differences in herbage accumulated or in herbage harvested [mean 11·3 and 11·2 t dry matter (DM) ha⁻¹ respectively]. Above the 3·5 cm horizon, H, I and L swards had 0·56, 0·62 and 0·67 of DM as leaf and 0·30, 0·23 and 0·21 of DM as stem respectively. As grazing severity increased, tiller density of grass species other than perennial ryegrass (PRG) decreased (from 3,350 to 2,780 and to 1771 tillers m⁻² for H, I and L paddocks respectively) and the rejected area decreased (from 0·27 to 0·20 and to 0·10 for H, I and L paddocks respectively). These results indicate the importance of grazing management practice on sward structure and quality and endorse the concept of increased grazing severity as a strategy to maintain high-quality grass throughout the grazing season. The findings are presented in the context of the need for intensive dairy production systems to provide greater quantities of high-quality pasture over an extended grazing season, in response to policy changes with the abolition of EU milk quotas.

Epichloë fungal endophytes colonize the intercellular space of aerial organs of their plant hosts without causing symptoms. These symbionts are known to improve the performance of their host grasses in some situations of biotic and abiotic stress, leading to the suggestion that they can be used to improve grass tolerance to contaminants. The grass Festuca rubra is a host of the endophyte Epichloë festucae. We used two half-sib lines of F. rubra, each line composed of infected (E+) or endophyte-free (E−) seeds, to study the effect of varying levels of arsenic (6, 12, 25, and 50 mg L⁻¹), and of the endophyte in seed germination and radicle growth. The results showed that seed germination was not significantly affected by arsenic (As) levels lower than 25 mg L⁻¹, indicating that this grass has a relatively high tolerance of As at the germination stage. The decrease in germination observed at 25 and 50 mg L⁻¹ was due to increased seed mortality and to the reversible inhibition of the germination of viable seeds caused by As. The presence of the endophyte did not change the germination response to arsenic of one line, but affected negatively the germination of the other line. In contrast to the process of germination, radicles of E+ seeds of both lines were longer than those of endophyte-free seeds. The results of this work indicate that Epichloë endophytes can affect the performance of some F. rubra genotypes when As is present in the soil.

The effects of summer-to-winter simulated grazing management factors, namely defoliation interval (INT: 21, 42, 56 or 84 d), defoliation height (DH: 2·7, 3·6, 5·3 or 6·0 cm) and final defoliation date (FIN: 23 September, 4 November or 16 December) on herbage production in a grass–clover sward were studied. Treatments were imposed between July and December 2008, with all plots under common management in the following March to June 2009. The 42-d INT achieved the highest (P < 0·001) total herbage yield at 11·00 t DM ha⁻¹. Shorter (21 d) and longer (56–84 d) intervals reduced annual clover herbage yield and biological nitrogen fixation estimates. Lowering DH from 6·0 to 2·7 cm in the summer-to-winter period increased sward clover content and clover herbage yield through to the following June, 6 months after treatments ended. Delaying FIN from 23 September to 16 December had no significant effect on annual clover, grass or total herbage yield. Spring–summer clover herbage yield was positively correlated with spring–summer clover stolon mass (R² = 0·54, P < 0·001) and, to a lesser extent, light penetration through the sward in the previous winter (R² = 0·16, P < 0·05). A 42-d INT with low DH (2·7–3·5 cm) is therefore recommended for grass–clover swards.

The objectives of this study were to determine the proportion of indigestible neutral detergent fibre (iNDF) in the neutral detergent fibre (NDF) fraction of sugarcane, to estimate changes in NDF digestibility (NDFD) during the harvesting window and to predict sugarcane digestibility based on its fibre fractions. Whole plants of the IAC86-2480 and IAC93-3046 varieties were collected during the harvesting windows in 2007 and 2009, respectively. The in vitro true dry matter digestibility (IVTDMD) and fibre contents (NDF, iNDF, acid detergent fibre) were determined by near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). The NDFD and potentially digestible NDF digestibility (pdNDFD) were estimated, and the fractional digestion rate of pdNDF was calculated. There was no relationship between growing days and iNDF as a proportion of NDF (P = 0·28) or with the fractional digestion rate of pdNDF (P = 0·30). Therefore, NDFD (mean = 335 g kg⁻¹) and pdNDFD (mean = 657 g kg⁻¹) remained almost constant during the harvesting window (P = 0·70 and P = 0·32 respectively). Acid detergent fibre and NDF were the best predictors of sugarcane dry matter (DM) digestibility. In conclusion, NDFD seems to be unchanged during crop growth. The point at which to harvest sugarcane as a forage source should therefore be decided based on NDF concentration, which is greatly influenced by sucrose accumulation.

Establishing the radiation-use efficiency (RUE) of forage brassica crops will aid our understanding of their photosynthetic performance. The concept of RUE has been developed for cereals and legumes, but there is limited information for forage brassica crops. Three experiments defining the influence of different sowing dates on ‘Gruner’ kale (Brassica oleracea acephala L.) dry matter production were conducted at Hastings (Hawkes Bay) and Lincoln (Canterbury) in New Zealand between 2002 and 2009. These trials were also evaluated for radiation interception and RUE. Delayed sowing increased RUE in two out of three experiments across sites: from 1·93 g MJ⁻¹ photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) for December-sown crops to 2·72 g MJ⁻¹ PAR (P < 0·001) for January-sown crops at Hastings and from 1·50 for September-sown crops to 2·00 g MJ⁻¹ PAR (P < 0·001) for November-sown crops at Lincoln. The different sowing dates and years of experimentation provided a range of mean temperatures (from 13 to 16°C) during the vegetative period. Across years and sowing dates, RUE was strongly correlated with mean temperature (R² = 0·81) and sowing date (R² = 0·64), but weakly correlated with season length (R² = 0·11) and dry matter (R² = 0·002). There was also a strong correlation (R² = 0·83) between sowing date and mean temperature. The increase in RUE with delayed sowing was therefore mainly attributed to increased mean temperatures. Radiation-use efficiency increased at about 0·41 g MJ⁻¹ for each 1°C increase from 13 to 16°C.

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) infected with a novel endophyte (AR37 or AR1), Wild-type endophyte or no endophyte (Nil) was sown with white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in autumn 2005. The pastures were rotationally grazed by dairy cows from 2005–2009. Annual dry matter (DM) yield did not differ but AR37 pastures had a higher ryegrass tiller density, especially after the 2008 summer drought (+130%), and less white clover than did AR1 pastures. Concentrations of alkaloids produced by the Wild-type association (lolitrem B, ergovaline) followed the same seasonal trends as did the AR37 alkaloids (epoxy-janthitrems) but summer drought reduced concentrations of lolitrem B and epoxy-janthitrems to less than half the mid-summer (February) peak concentrations in the other years. Insect pests were monitored annually between 2006 and 2009. Tiller damage by Argentine stem weevil (Listronotus bonariensis (Kuschel)) was significantly reduced by all endophyte treatments. African black beetle (Heteronychus arator (F.)) populations in soil samples increased during the experiment with Nil > AR1 > Wild-type = AR37. Root aphid (Aploneura lentisci (Pass.)) infestations followed the pattern AR1 > Nil > Wild-type = AR37. A lower pest pressure from all insect pests in AR37 pastures is likely to have contributed to this treatment having the highest ryegrass tiller densities.

An increased recycling of nutrients from organic waste to support feed and food production is important for achieving sustainability. However, organic waste may contain undesired microorganisms that may increase the risk of impaired hygienic quality of feeds when used in forage-cropping systems. This study aimed to investigate how the hygienic quality of silage and haylage was affected after fertilization of grassland with organic fertilizers [anaerobic digestion residue (ADR) pasteurized before spreading, or liquid cattle manure] compared with inorganic NPK fertilization. The experiment was performed on the same grass ley for 2 years, with fertilization carried out before each harvest (year 1, two harvests; year 2, one harvest). The crop was conserved as silage (300 g DM kg⁻¹) and haylage (500 g DM kg⁻¹) in bales (ca 40–55 kg) stored for 1, 5 or 10 months before opening, including effects of storage time and conservation method (silage or haylage) on hygienic quality. Results showed that ADR-treated crops did not produce silage or haylage with higher microbial counts in comparison with manure-treated crops on any occasion. The fermentation pattern in silage and haylage from ADR-treated crops was similar to the pattern in manure-treated crops. The use of inorganic fertilizer sometimes produced lower pH and higher content of lactic acid in silage, compared with using organic fertilizers. In conclusion, ADR could be used as an organic fertilizer for forage crops without increased risk of impaired hygienic quality compared with using liquid manure or inorganic NPK fertilizers.

Temperate pasture-based dairy farming systems with low input of supplementary feed are vulnerable to changes in climate through alterations in feed supply and nutritive value. Although current systems in New Zealand (NZ) and southeast Australia have been successful in adapting to variable weather conditions, they will need to undergo further changes to continue to profit in the future. This review describes predicted changes in climate in NZ and southeast Australia, likely effects on the feedbase used in the pasture-based dairy industry and the flow-on effect on milk-solids production and profitability. Potential adaptation options that will allow farmers to take advantage of new opportunities and minimize any negative impacts of climate change are also identified. For example, in many regions, annual pasture production is predicted to increase due to carbon dioxide fertilization and warmer temperatures during winter/spring. Production may decline, however, in regions with either reduced rainfall or severe flooding. Should this occur, farmers could strategically use supplementary feed, reduce stocking rates, irrigate or sow alternative plant species with greater drought tolerance. Pasture-based dairy systems have high levels of adaptive capacity, and there are opportunities to continue to improve production efficiencies particularly where rainfall change is small. Further investigation into possible adaptation options is required to determine their impact on milk-solids production and profitability, as well as to identify additional options.

Populations of migratory geese overwintering in Europe have risen rapidly during recent decades, leading to increased pressure on available forage resources and more grazing on agricultural lands. Farmers throughout Europe have complained of yield losses due to goose grazing. In spring, the Svalbard-breeding population of pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhynchus) migrates through specific staging sites in Norway, where the geese graze on dairy grasslands and other types of agricultural lands in the early growing season. Despite this, little is known of the impacts of goose grazing on hay biomass and quality in Norway. An experiment using exclosures to prevent goose grazing, and plots that were open for grazing, was established in Central Norway to test the effects of variable grazing intensity on dairy grassland yields. A single spring-grazing event had severe negative impact at the site with the highest grazing intensity, leading to a 25% reduction in forage yield (milk feed units per hectare) as compared to ungrazed areas. The impacts on the sites with lower grazing intensity were more subtle. The overall reduction (across all sites) of biomass yield was 26%. Forage quality, in terms of milk feed units per kg, was not much affected. Grazing increased the proportion and diversity of weeds, as evidenced by a 49% increase of the Shannon biodiversity index, and there was a 1·3% decrease in the proportion of herbage biomass of sown species. Hence, we have confirmed farmer reports on yield losses, gaining an increased understanding of the overall farmer costs associated with goose grazing in this northern latitude region.

Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil) and L. pedunculatus (greater bird's-foot trefoil) have the potential to contribute nutritional benefits to grass–legume swards in temperate regions, but there is a lack of information on their competitive ability in such mixtures. This experiment compared the sward contribution and condensed tannin (CT) content of nine Lotus varieties established in plots on a low-fertility upland site in Wales, UK, containing mixtures of meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) and white clover (Trifolium repens) varieties of different leaf size, or without white clover (control). Total dry-matter (DM) yields and Lotus DM were evaluated in two cuts in each of three harvest years, with CT content of Lotus measured at Cut 1 in each year. Lotus corniculatus varieties were significantly higher yielding than those of L. pedunculatus, except in Year 3. In all cuts, except Cut 1 in Year 1 and Year 3, the presence of white clover increased total DM yield compared with the zero-clover treatment. Total DM yields were higher with large-leaved cv. Katrina than with small-leaved cv. AberAce except for Cut 1 in Year 1. Annual Lotus DM yields were significantly higher in the presence of white clover, except in Year 3, but were not significantly affected by white clover leaf size. The highest concentration of sward CT (17 mg g⁻¹ of sward DM) was insufficient to bring about measurable environmental benefits. A Lotus breeding programme aimed at increasing the leaf/stem ratio within persistent germplasm could be pursued to ensure delivery of appropriate levels of sward CT.

This study investigated the effects of advancing stage of maturity and additive treatment on the fermentation characteristics of three common grassland species. Perennial ryegrass (PRG; Lolium perenne L., var. Gandalf), timothy (Phleum pratense L., var. Erecta) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L., var. Merviot) were harvested at three dates in the primary growth (11 May, 8 June and 6 July; Harvests 1–3) and ensiled with the following additive treatments: (1) control (i.e. no treatment), (2) formic acid-based additive, (3) homofermentative lactic acid bacterial (LAB) inoculant and (4) heterofermentative LAB inoculant. Additive application to the PRG (irrespective of harvest date), the late-harvest timothy (Harvest 3) and the red clover (Harvests 2 and 3) herbages had little impact on silage fermentation characteristics, where a lactic acid dominant fermentation already prevailed. However, the application of the formic acid-based additive to the Harvest 1 and 2 timothy and Harvest 1 red clover herbages, where the silage fermentation characteristics were poorer, resulted in an increase in the proportion of lactic acid in total fermentation products and a decrease in pH. In contrast, the heterofermentative LAB inoculant had a negative impact on silage fermentation characteristics where a poor preservation prevailed in the corresponding control silage.

Conventional breeding programmes on common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) are based on knowledge of relationships between forage yield components and economically important characteristics. To improve this knowledge, a small-plot trial was carried out in 2005 and 2006 at Rimski Šančevi, Serbia, with fourteen common vetch accessions from the Novi Sad Vicia collection of diverse geographic origin and collection status. Results showed significant variability in forage yield components and related characteristics. Two-year average values of forage dry matter (DM) yield ranged from 8·0 t ha⁻¹ (cvs. Armantes and Labari) to 10·2 t ha⁻¹ (cv. Slavej). The highest 2-year average concentration of crude protein (CP) was for cv. Armantes (239 g kg⁻¹ DM). Highly significant positive genetic correlation coefficients were found between time from sowing to first flowering and main stem length (0·938) and between number of stems per plant and CP content in the forage DM (0·910). Significant positive phenotypic correlation coefficients were detected between main stem length and time from sowing to first flowering (0·830). A cluster analysis showed four main groups of cultivars based on the recorded forage yield components and related characteristics. It is concluded that common vetch represents a stable and reliable source of protein-rich forage for regions such as the Balkans area of SE Europe. Genetic variability within common vetch and knowledge of the tested cultivars offer a basis for further improvement and developing novel cultivars.

Characterization of grass fibre is important in assessing its potential for industrial fibre applications. Stem and leaf sections were sampled from triplicate field plots of two grass species, perennial ryegrass (PRG) and tall fescue at three dates (monthly from 12 May) in the primary growth, and were used to (a) isolate individual fibre cells and (b) prepare transverse sections. Microscopy and image analysis software were used to determine the length and width of individual fibre cells and the proportion of lignified fibre in stem and leaf transverse sections. The length and width of individual fibre cells were greater (P < 0·001) in stem than in leaf sections, while individual fibre cell length was greater (P < 0·01) for tall fescue than PRG. Harvest date and grass species had little effect (P > 0·05) on the proportion of lignified fibre in the transverse-sectional area. However, there was a greater (P < 0·001) proportion of lignified fibre in the transverse-sectional area of grass stems than leaves, with tall fescue having a greater (P < 0·05) stem and leaf transverse-sectional area and area of lignified fibre in transverse section than PRG. Tall fescue harvested at a later stage of growth, with higher proportions of stem than leaf tissue, may be more suitable for industrial fibre applications.

We used exogenous application of a phytohormone (gibberellin GA₃, ‘GA’) to test the hypothesis that common perennial grasses may not be growing at all times to the limit of resource availability. Plants were taken from the field in winter, and again in summer and their responses to GA assessed under standard conditions, indoors, to reveal their ‘potential’ for growth at different times. Time of year, and associated developmental state, had a major impact on the capacity of plants to respond to exogenous GA, and less so their current growing conditions, temperature and N availability, during measurement. A major increase in dry matter (DM) production in winter-derived plants took place at both low and high N, with no evidence of a reduction in N content in tissues. That ryegrass plant growth can be stimulated, without externally adding resources, supports the hypothesis there is an element of internal control in how plants respond to ‘signals’ in their environment, that might be manipulated. This offers prospects for reducing environmental impacts (leaching, N₂O) compared with obtaining the same yield increase by adding fertilizer N in early season. Responses to exogenous GA were detected (as significant) but far smaller in summer-derived plants. Molecular mechanisms of detection of N resource signals, developmental triggers and the role of endogenous gibberellin need to be unravelled to assess scope for breeding ryegrass germplasm to better match demands for increased production with greater resource-use efficiency.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of correcting indigestible neutral detergent fibre (iNDF) for the loss of lignin in predictions of silage organic matter digestibility (OMD). Twenty-five primary and regrowth grass and red clover silages with known in vivo OMD in sheep were used. Silage and faecal samples were analysed by different lignin assays: the Klason method, acid detergent lignin (ADL) and permanganate lignin. The methods were evaluated by the Lucas test. The slopes in Lucas fits of primary and regrowth grass and red clover silages did not differ, and faecal recovery of ADL was not different from unity. The iNDF was recovered from 288-h in situ incubations in three dairy cows and analysed for ADL. Recovery of ADL in iNDF was 0·562 and 0·801 for grass and red clover silages. Silage concentration of iNDF performed better compared to the different lignin fractions in predicting OMD. Correcting individual samples for loss of ADL as well as using a general correction based on the Lucas fits of ADL in iNDF of grass and red clover silages lowered the prediction error of OMD, but despite losses of ADL in iNDF, the improvements in predictions of OMD were marginal.

Increased biodiversity may improve ecosystem services, including herbage yield. A mixture experiment was carried out at five sites in Northern Europe and one in Canada to investigate whether mixtures of grasses and legumes would give higher herbage yield than monocultures. Resistance of the mixtures to weed invasion and nutritive value of the herbage were also investigated. The experimental layout followed a simplex design, where four species differing in specific functional traits, timothy (Phleum pratense L.), smooth meadow grass (Poa pratensis L.), red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.), were grown in monocultures and eleven different mixtures with systematically varying proportions of the four species. Positive diversity effects (DE) were observed, leading to greater herbage dry-matter (DM) yield in mixtures than expected from species sown in monocultures. For centroid mixtures, the DE generated on average an additional 32, 25 and 21% of the DM yield than would be expected from the monocultures in the first, second and third year respectively. On average, the mixtures were 9, 15 and 7% more productive than the most productive monoculture (transgressive overyielding) in the first, second and third year respectively. These benefits persisted over the three harvest years of the experiment and were consistent among most sites. This positive effect was not accompanied by a reduction in herbage digestibility and crude protein concentration that is usually observed with increased DM yield. Mixtures also reduced the invasion of weeds to <5% of herbage yield compared to monocultures (10–60% of herbage yield).

Urtica cannabina (U. cannabina), a member of the Urticaceae family, is widely distributed throughout the temperate regions of the world and can be used as a nutritious feed for animals through the winter period. To provide high-quality forage all year-round, we treated freshly harvested U. cannabina without additives (control), but with corn flour (CF) (5:1 w/w), molasses (2, 4, and 8% fresh weight), or LalsiL Dry (LD) inoculant (5, 10 and 20 mg kg⁻¹ of fresh weight). We then assessed the chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and fermentative parameters of the products after 0, 3, 5, 15, 20 and 60 d of ensiling. The results showed that: (i) U. cannabina had large quantities of protein and some essential minerals, including calcium, potassium, sodium, zinc, copper and manganese, and was particularly rich in magnesium and iron. (ii) U. cannabina can be preserved as a highly nutritious silage. No additive treatment or the LD inoculant treatments produced badly preserved silages. The 2% molasses treatment produced badly preserved silage, but 4–8% molasses produced well-preserved silages. The CF treatment also produced well-preserved silage. We recommend the application rates of molasses at 4–8% of fresh weight or 5:1 CF to improve U. cannabina silage.

Vetch species (Vicia narbonensis, V. sativa and V. villosa) are widely used for fodder production in Tunisia. This study aims to investigate vetch strategies involved in drought resistance through morphological and physiological criteria. Plants were sown in pots and subjected to four soil-water levels: 100% (control), 80, 60 and 40% of field capacity (FC). After 133 d of water treatment, and under well-watered conditions, V. narbonensis showed the largest plant height and shoot and root dry matter and the highest leaf relative water content and water potential (Ψ_w), whereas V. sativa had the greatest leaf area (LA). At the 40% FC treatment, V. narbonensis showed smaller decreases in plant height and LA, and the greatest reduction in Ψ_w (140%). Thus, it shows better adaptation and a more equilibrated water balance, despite having accumulated less proline than the two other species. Vicia sativa and V. villosa showed a similar behaviour under water stress with a superiority of the latter. Vicia sativa was the species most affected in terms of its growth and water-status parameters. Vetch species mainly used avoidance mechanisms to withstand drought, with V. narbonensis showing the highest tolerance.

The relative importance of breed versus rearing experience on the grazing behaviour and diet selection of beef cattle when grazing unimproved grassland was examined over 4 years. Suckler-reared calves of a traditional (T) breed (North Devon) or a commercial (C) breed (Simmental × Hereford Friesian) were cross-fostered and then reared either extensively (E) on unimproved grassland or intensively (I) on agriculturally improved fertilized grassland. As yearlings, the four groups of calves (Traditional breed + Extensive rearing (TE); Traditional breed + Intensive rearing (TI); Commercial breed + Extensive rearing (CE) and Commercial breed + Intensive rearing (CI)) grazed unimproved grassland dominated by Molinia caerulea, for 2 months, and foraging behaviour was studied in a test phase. There was a breed effect on total (bites + chews; TJM) jaw movement rate (T, 78·2 vs. C, 76·5 min⁻¹; F prob. = 0·041) during grazing and on the proportion of bites taken from plant communities with sward height ≥6 cm (T, 0·83 vs. C, 0·76; F prob. = 0·018). Rearing experience affected TJM rate in the first year in July (E, 80·0 vs. I, 76·8 min⁻¹; F prob. = 0·015) and August (E, 78·5 vs. I, 75·5 min⁻¹; F prob. = 0·046). The intensively reared animals grew less well on average during the test phase than those that had previous experience of the unimproved grassland as calves with their mothers (E, 0·16 vs. I, 0·09 kg day⁻¹; F prob. = 0·033). Our findings indicate that the rearing experience of livestock appears to be as important as the breed when designing grazing managements for nature conservation areas.

Predicting species composition in mixed swards by near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) can save labour in grassland research, provided equations are available. This study compares calibration strategies to predict species composition in swards with tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens). The compared calibration strategies were based on either real or artificial samples. Real samples are samples taken from multispecies swards; the species composition is known by hand separating; after separating, the original samples are recomposed. Artificial samples are samples obtained by mixing single species grown in pure stands in known proportions. The performance of the equation based on real samples was significantly better than the performance of the equation based on artificial samples. We hypothesized that the weak performance of the equation based on artificial samples was due to a lack of environmental variation in the spectra of the artificial samples. The hypothesis was supported by the good performance of a novel calibration strategy based on the spectra of the artificial samples with added variation. According to the obtained results, a calibration strategy based on few but diverse calibration samples is discussed.

Chilean needle grass [Nassella neesiana (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth; CNG] is a perennial spear grass that has invaded pastures in south-eastern Australia and can lead to a substantial reduction of stockcarrying capacity during the summer months. This study examined a range of grazing, herbicide and pasture resowing options, alone or in combination, on CNG and introduced pasture grass basal cover, for several CNG-infested sites in south-eastern Australia. At each site, options were chosen on the basis that they were most likely to control the CNG infestation while maintaining a productive sheep-grazing enterprise on grass pastures. After 2 years of management, the reduction in CNG basal cover in set stock plots that were sprayed with flupropanate, versus those not sprayed, ranged from non-detectable to a reduction of 80%, depending on site location. After 5 years of management, the reduction ranged from zero to 50%. Grazing management or sowing of competitive pastures did not generally reduce CNG basal cover to low levels. None of the management options maintained reasonable levels of desirable perennial species by the end of 4–5 years. We conclude that, because of the persistence of CNG, the need for regular spraying of herbicide, and the relative ineffectiveness of other control methods, management systems may need to be developed that utilize CNG while minimizing its input to the soil seedbank.

Irradiance and soil nitrogen effects on growth, net photosynthesis and radiation use efficiency (RUE) of Brachiaria decumbens were investigated in fertilized and non-fertilized stands. Three levels of photosynthetic photon flux (PPF: S0 = 100%, S1 = 50% and S2 = 30%) and two N supplies, with (N+) and without (N−), were used. Forage biomass and nutrient accumulation, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf area index (LAI), fractional intercepted photosynthetic photon flux (fPPF), leaf photosynthetic response to light and efficiency of radiation use at leaf (A/Q) and canopy (RUE) levels were measured. Shade effects were mostly independent of soil N. Final yield was decreased by 34% (S1) and 57% (S2). Shade increased SLA (25–46%), so maximum LAI (2·4–3·3) was similar among light regimes. In N− stands, reductions in leaf biomass (14%), SLA (17%) and LAI (27%) were recorded, although forage yield was similar between soil N conditions. Under shade, peaks of A were comparable to those at full light, so A/Q was higher around midday. Derived parameters of the A-PPF curves were similar between S0 and S2. A maximum fPPF = 0·8 (S0N+, S1N+) was recorded at LAI = 3–4. Under limited sunlight, relatively high RUE (1·6–2·8 g MJ⁻¹) were observed over both soil N conditions. We concluded that B. decumbens had a high plasticity to shade, thus explaining its success under silvopastoral systems.

Changes in livestock production systems have led to land-use changes and abandonment, especially of semi-natural grassland in agriculturally less favoured regions. The generation of energy from biomass of extensive, high-diversity grasslands can be an alternative to their abandonment, and anaerobic digestion is one possible method for converting grassland biomass into energy. However, little is known about the effects of species richness (SR) and functional groups on chemical constituents relevant for anaerobic digestion and the resulting energy potential. In this study, changes in the herbage chemical constituents that are relevant for forage quality were studied along a well-defined diversity gradient (one to sixty species) and across different combinations of functional groups (legumes, small herbs, tall herbs and grasses). Substrate-specific methane yield (CH_4 sub) was estimated through the concentrations of forage-quality parameters such as crude fibre (CF), crude protein (CP), crude lipid, nitrogen-free extract and their documented digestibility values, as well as the respective methane yields. Results show that with increasing SR, the CF increased and CP decreased, even though these effects could not be fully disentangled from the presence of grasses. These trends led to a negative effect of SR on CH_4 sub, while the area-specific methane yield (CH_4 area = CH_4 sub × biomass yield) increased due to a strong increase in biomass with increasing SR. The CH_4 sub was increased when legumes were present, and it declined with the presence of grasses. Generally, CH_4 sub and CH_4 area varied between functional-group monocultures and all functional-group mixtures.

The benefits of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) in pastures are widely recognized. However, white clover is perceived as being unreliable due to its typically low content and spatial and temporal variability in mixed (grass-legume) pastures. One solution to increase the clover proportion and quality of herbage available to grazing animals may be to spatially separate clover from grass within the same field. In a field experiment, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover were sown as a mixture and compared with alternating strips of ryegrass and clover (at 1·5 and 3 m widths), or in adjacent monocultures (strips of 18 m width within a 36-m-wide field). Pastures were stocked by ewes and lambs for three 10-month grazing periods. Over the 3 years of the experiment, spatial separation of grass and clover, compared with a grass–clover mixture, increased clover herbage production, although its proportion in the sward declined through time (0·49–0·54 vs 0·34 in the mixture in the first year, 0·28–0·33 vs 0·15 in the second year and 0·03–0·18 vs 0·01 in the third year). Total herbage production in the growing season in the spatially separated treatments decreased from 11384 kg DM ha⁻¹ in the first year to 8150 kg DM ha⁻¹ in the third year. Crude protein concentration of clover and grass components in the 18-m adjacent monoculture treatment was greater than the mixture treatment for both clover (310 vs 280 g kg⁻¹ DM) and grass (200 vs 180 g kg⁻¹ DM). There was no clear benefit in liveweight gain beyond the first year in response to spatially separating grass and clover into monocultures within the same field.

Six vetches (Vicia spp.), represented by 96 accessions, were evaluated for herbage yield, seed yield and related characters in three consecutive growing seasons (1995-98) in semi-arid central Turkey. Data were analysed by multiple statistical procedures: principal component analysis, restricted maximum-likelihood method and simple linear regression analysis. In the first growing season (Y1), the growing period was curtailed by summer drought, and in the second (Y2) by heavy rainfall. In the third season (Y3), conditions were more temperate. Vicia pannonica ssp. pannonica (Pan) and V. villosa ssp. villosa (Vil) produced more biomass in Y3 than in Y1 and Y2, while V. pannonica ssp. purpurascens (Pur) and V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa (Das) produced more biomass in the wetter Y2. In the shorter growing seasons (Y1 and Y2), the earliness of Pur and Das resulted in high seed yield. V. narbonensis (Nar) in Y3 was particularly sensitive to widely fluctuating air temperatures with the accompanying high rainfall at the vegetative stage, which resulted in vigorous vegetative growth, hindered flowering and reduced seed yield. In V. sativa ssp. sativa (Sat), biomass and seed yield were significantly increased by the longer period of favourable growing weather during Y3. In agricultural practice, Pan and Vil have great potential for herbage production and grazing; Pur, Nar and Sat for grain and straw production; and Das for both hay and grain crops.

Nutrient losses from grazed pasture are an important non-point source of water pollution. The distribution of animal urine patches on pasture is an important factor in determining nitrate losses and influencing pasture growth, nutritive value and pasture acceptability to livestock, as a high amount of nitrogen (N) is deposited onto a small area of soil under a urine patch. Urine distribution may be recorded during or post-grazing. Measurements during grazing have been automated, but post-grazing measurement currently relies on manual observations that are time consuming and cannot be subsequently verified. To automate post-grazing measurements, aerial photographs were taken of grazed pasture approximately 14 d post-grazing using a standard digital camera. Pasture response areas were successfully identified by analysing the hue of the images using readily available software, yielding comparable results to manual counts. The majority of dung patches did not produce observable pasture responses, with only 14% of the visible response areas being associated with dung, so although this method cannot distinguish between urine and dung response areas, it is primarily influenced by urine. Provided photographs are taken in full sunlight with a high-quality camera, excreta patch numbers, areas and spatial distribution can be measured with a high degree of precision. Furthermore, the method is relatively inexpensive and applicable to a wide range of situations. A permanent photographic record of the pasture is also established, which allows verification of the analysis in future.

Mutualism between plants and animals demonstrates that grazing has positive impacts on plant growth. Animal saliva plays an important role in plant–herbivore interactions, and various salivary components work for the beneficial relationship. This study was performed to compare responses of Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvelev. (Poaceae) to sheep saliva and two salivary components. One randomized block designed experiment was conducted in 2007 with six treatments: control, clipping with water, with saliva, with epidermal growth factor (EGF), with thiamine and with mixture of EGF and thiamine. There were significant differences between treatments on biomass, buds and tillers of L. chinensis. Compared with control plants, there was no compensatory response in clipped plants due to the limited number of available meristems in late-growing season. Plants in clipping with saliva had more biomass and buds than those in clipping with water or salivary components. Clipping with salivary components had no stimulatory effects on plant growth, relative to clipping with water. The results showed that herbivore saliva had greater impacts than salivary components, and there was no additive effect between salivary components on plant growth. This study demonstrated the complexity in saliva components, which offer saliva with the capacity to play an important role in plant–herbivore interactions.

This study evaluated the prediction accuracy of grass dry-matter intake (GDMI) and milk yield predicted by the GrazeIn model using a large database representing 8787 per cow GDMI measurements. In this study, the animal input variables (age, parity, week of lactation, potential peak milk yield, milk fat content, milk protein content, bodyweight, body condition score (BCS), week of conception, BCS at calving and calf birth weight) were investigated. The mean actual GDMI of the database was 15·9 kg DM per cow d⁻¹ and GrazeIn predicted a mean GDMI for the database of 15·5 kg DM per cow d⁻¹. The mean bias was −0·4 kg DM per cow d⁻¹. GrazeIn predicted GDMI for the total database with an RPE of 15·5% at cow level. The mean actual daily milk yield of the database was 21·3 kg per cow d⁻¹ and GrazeIn predicted a daily milk yield for the database of 22·2 kg per cow d⁻¹. The mean bias was +0·9 kg per cow d⁻¹. GrazeIn predicted milk yield for the total database with an RPE of 16·7% at cow level. From the evaluation, GrazeIn predicted milk yield of all cows in late lactation with a larger level of error than in early and mid-lactation. This error appears to be due to the persistency of the lactation curve used by the model, which results in a higher predicted milk yield in late lactation compared with the actual milk yield.

White clover can reduce fertilizer-N requirements, improve sward nutritive value and increase environmental sustainability of grazed grasslands. Results of previous experiments in glasshouse conditions and on mown plots have suggested that white clover may be more susceptible than perennial ryegrass to treading damage on wet soils. However, this phenomenon has not been investigated under actual grazing conditions. This experiment examined the effects of treading on clover content, herbage production and soil properties within three clover-based grazing systems on a wet soil in Ireland for 1 year. Treading resulted in soil compaction, as evidenced by increased soil bulk density (P < 0·001) and reductions in the proportion of large (air-filled) soil pores (P < 0·001). Treading reduced annual herbage production of both grass and white clover by similar amounts 0·59 and 0·45 t ha⁻¹ respectively (P < 0·001). Treading reduced the sward clover content in June (P < 0·01) but had no effect on annual clover content, clover stolon mass or clover content at the end of the experiment. Therefore, there was little evidence that white clover is more susceptible to treading damage than perennial ryegrass under grazing conditions on wet soils.

This study evaluated the prediction accuracy of grass dry-matter intake (GDMI) and milk yield predicted by the model GrazeIn using a database representing 522 grazing herds. The GrazeIn input variables under consideration were fill value (FV), grass energy content [Unité Fourragère Lait (UFL)], grass protein value [true protein absorbable in the small intestine when rumen fermen energy is limiting microbial protein synthesis in the rumen (PDIE)], pre-grazing herbage mass (PGHM), daily herbage allowance (DHA) and concentrate supplementation. GrazeIn was evaluated using the relative prediction error (RPE). The mean actual GDMI and milk yields of grazing herds in the database ranged from 9·9–22·0 kg DM per cow d⁻¹ and 8·9–41·8 kg per cow d⁻¹, respectively. The accuracy of predictions for the total database estimated by RPE was 12·2 and 12·8% for GDMI and milk yield, respectively. The mean bias (predicted minus actual) for GDMI was −0·3 kg DM per cow d⁻¹ and for milk yield was +0·9 kg per cow d⁻¹. GrazeIn predicted GDMI with a level of error <13·4% RPE for spring, summer and autumn. GrazeIn predicted milk yield in autumn (RPE = 17·6%) with a larger error in comparison with spring (RPE = 10·4%) and summer (RPE = 11·0%). Future studies should focus on the adaptation of GrazeIn to correct and improve the prediction of milk yield in autumn.

Increasing plant species diversity in grasslands may improve productivity and stability of yields. In a field experiment, we investigated the herbage dry-matter (DM) yield and crude protein content of two-species swards of perennial ryegrass–white clover (Lolium perenne L.–Trifolium repens L.) and three-species swards of ryegrass–white clover with red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). Five different managements represented cutting, grazing and combinations thereof, with different slurry fertilization treatments in 1- to 4-year-old swards. The three-species mixture out-yielded the two-species mixture in years 1 and 2. Across all 4 years, yields were 8–10% higher in cut swards. Inclusion of red clover increased the yields of clover across the 4 years by 51% without fertilizer and by 90% when fertilized. Responses to slurry fertilization were similar in both mixtures and were mainly independent of sward age. There was a complementary effect over the season and across managements. Red clover dominated in the first and third cuts; white clover dominated in the second and fourth cuts. Red clover dominated in cut swards and white clover in grazed swards. Future prospects of the inclusion of red clover in sown swards are discussed. These may include higher nitrogen-use efficiency in ruminants, increased soil fertility and improved sward flexibility to cope with changing managements. The findings also suggest positive yield effects of alternating between cutting and grazing within the season or between years.

Control of exotic plant species invading the native prairie relies on our understanding of the eco-physiological mechanisms responsible for the spread of these species as they compete with native plants for soil resources. We used a greenhouse pot experiment to study vegetative biomass allocation in response to drought stress in two exotic grass species, Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyss), and two native species, western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) A. Löve) and green needlegrass (Stipa viridula Trin.). The experiment was conducted over 3 months in 2010 and again in 2011 in a factorial design of four species and two drought treatments. The proportional data of biomass allocation to shoots, roots, rhizomes and crowns (shoot base) of grass seedlings were analysed by both the nonparametric Mann–Whitney U-test on the original data and one-way anova on the arcsine-transformed data. Our data suggest a clear distinction between the two invasive and two native species in potential competitiveness in soil resource use, with the two exotic species having higher biomass allocation to roots than the two native species and the native species having a higher biomass allocation to crowns than the two exotic species. It is interesting to note that the strongly rhizomatous smooth brome did not produce rhizomes in the first season's growth, regardless of the water stress level. The effect of drought stress on biomass allocation manifested itself more on rhizomes or crowns than on roots or shoots of the four studied grass species, with the effects species-specific in nature.

Salinization is an increasing land degradation issue in the Songnen Grassland of northern China. Effects of salinity and temperature on seed germination and seedling growth of Chloris virgata, a promising halophyte, and Digitaria sanguinalis, a widespread glycophyte were examined in six soil solutions (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm NaCl) and four temperatures (15, 20, 25 and 30°C). Germination percentages and rates of both species decreased significantly at higher salinities, but ungerminated seeds can recover germination upon supply of distilled water. Radicle length, seedling height and the total dry weight of both species generally decreased in a concentration-dependent manner at 20°C and above as the salinity increased. However, at 15°C, the salt-treated seedlings showed decreases with a similar magnitude for different salinities. Low salinities seem to stimulate germination and seedling growth of C. virgata compared with the control treatment. Both species were more sensitive to salinity during the seedling stage than the germination stage. Digitaria sanguinalis from the saline Songnen Grassland region seems to develop a halophyte-like adaptive strategy to some extent. However, C. virgata may still dominate most hyperhaline areas due to its higher salt tolerance.

Wilting grass prior to ensiling generally increases the dry matter (DM) intake but the effect of wilting on animal performance is still poorly understood. There is a need to improve understanding of the effects of wilting on the nutritional components and chemical composition of grass silage. This study focused on the effects of the extent and rate of wilting on N components of grass silage. Meadow grass was wilted to four DM contents (200, 350, 500, 650 g kg⁻¹) at two different rates (fast, slow), creating a total of eight silages. Crude protein (CP) fractions were measured using the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System. Utilizable CP at the duodenum (uCP), a measure of feed protein value, was estimated using the modified Hohenheim gas test. Ruminally insoluble, undegraded feed CP (RUP) was measured using an in situ technique. Amino acid (AA) composition prior to and after rumen incubation was also investigated. Utilizable CP at the duodenum, RUP and true protein fractions B2 and B3 were increased by rapid wilting and high DM content (DM > 500 g kg⁻¹), although the increase with DM was only mild for uCP, probably due to lower ME content in the DM-650 silages. Non-protein-N decreased with increasing DM and rapid wilting. The higher RUP content from both DM-650 silages leads to a higher total AA content after rumen incubation. Treatment also influenced the AA composition of the ensiled material, but the AA composition after rumen incubation was similar across treatments. Rapid and extensive wilting (DM > 500 g kg⁻¹) improved protein value and reduced CP degradability. Increased uCP may result in higher milk protein yield, while reduced degradability may reduce N lost from urinary excretion. The primary effect of wilting on post-ruminal AA supply from RUP appeared to be quantitative, rather than qualitative.

Plains rough fescue (Festuca hallii (Vasey) Piper) is a dominant grass in the endangered Fescue Prairie of North America. Infrequent and unpredictable seed production presents a challenge for the use of this species in restoration and rangeland seeding. The objective of this study was to compare seed yield of different plains rough fescue populations and to determine the dependence of seed yield on phenotypic characteristics. Effect of weather conditions during the floral induction and initiation period of different years of the study was also compared. In 2007, a completely randomized field plot experiment was established from eleven populations of plains rough fescue at Swift Current, SK, Canada. In 2007, 2010 and 2011, individual plant seed yield, reproductive tillers, above-ground biomass, plant height and crown diameter were measured, and plant vigour was scored. All measured variables differed significantly (P ≤ 0·05) among populations. Four populations were identified as having higher seed yield potential. Plants in these four populations also had characteristics of good plant vigour, taller stems, more reproductive tillers and greater biomass. Seed yield increased linearly with increasing plant height, crown diameter, above-ground biomass and number of reproductive tillers (r² ranged 0·17–0·67, P < 0·001), but number of reproductive tillers (r² = 0·53–0·67, P < 0·001) was a better predictor for selection of lines with higher seed yield. Although seed yield varied among years, populations with higher seed yield tended to produce greater amounts of seed over the period of the study.

Perennial forage legumes, particularly lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), play a significant role in crop/livestock mixed farming systems in the semiarid region of the Loess Plateau of China as stock feed and a source of nitrogen for subsequent crops. However, there is evidence that lucerne reduces soil water deep in the soil profile, thereby reducing subsequent crop productivity. From 2004 to 2010, this study evaluated the forage productivity and water use of two locally adapted perennial legume species, milk vetch (Astragalus adsurgens Pall.) and bush clover (Lespedeza davurica S.), compared with lucerne. The 7-year total and average annual forage yield of milk vetch were 56 and 8 t ha⁻¹ and bush clover was 42 and 6 t ha⁻¹, respectively, significantly lower than lucerne at 91 and 13 t ha⁻¹. However, despite lower water-use efficiencies (16 and 12 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ for milk vetch and bush clover, respectively, compared to 22 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ for lucerne), the total 7-year water use in milk vetch and bush clover was 3500 mm and 3490 mm, respectively, which was 135–140 mm less than lucerne. After 7 years, lucerne had extracted water from the upper 5 m soil, whereas bush clover used water mainly from the upper 2 m of the soil profile and milk vetch still had some water available below 3 m. We conclude that while the locally adapted forage legumes were not as productive as lucerne as a source of fodder in mixed cropping/livestock system in this region, they use less water, which may be advantageous in drier regions.

A cut plot experiment was undertaken at two sites in Ireland, one a free-draining acid brown earth at Moorepark (MPK) and the other a fine loam soil with imperfect drainage at Johnstown Castle (JC). The effect of applying the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) at 10 kg ha⁻¹ in July, August and September or not applying DCD to plots receiving synthetic urine or zero urine on spring and annual herbage production was examined. In the experiment, each site received 350 kg nitrogen (N) fertilizer ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The application of DCD in August at a rate of 10 kg ha⁻¹ significantly increased spring and annual herbage production by 14 and 15%, respectively, at MPK, when applied following urine application in year 1. There was no effect of DCD applied in year 1 on herbage production at JC. The application of DCD in August resulted in lower soil total oxidized N (TON) content up to sampling day 56 post-urine application, at MPK in year 1, retaining higher N content in the soil. There was no effect of DCD on any of the parameters measured in year 2 at MPK or at JC. Urine application did not increase spring herbage production at either site. Urine application significantly increased annual herbage production at MPK only in year 1. Urine application increased annual herbage N uptake, herbage crude protein (CP) content and soil mineral N at both sites in both years.

In vitro direct plant regeneration of lucerne was achieved by simultaneous application of thidiazuron (TDZ) and 6-benzyladenine (BA) in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. Seedlings were germinated and grown for 6 d on growth regulator–containing MS medium. The shoot tip, consisting of the apical meristem along with parts of the cotyledonary leaves and hypocotyl, was then cultured on a medium containing the growth regulator(s). Adventitious budding of the shoot tip was promoted synergistically by treatment with TDZ and BA, and a maximum of thirty-five shoots per explant was obtained on a medium supplemented with 2 mg L⁻¹ TDZ and 1 mg L⁻¹ BA. Plant regeneration frequency varied from 67 to 93%, and five Indian lucerne cultivars responded well to the regeneration protocol. The Agrobacterium-mediated transformation frequency from co-cultivated explants was 13% following multiple shoot induction. Southern analysis of the T₀ plants and T₁ progenies confirmed stable inheritance of the hpt marker gene. Agrobacterium infection of the explant caused a significant reduction in the plant regeneration frequency (23%) and the number of shoots induced (11) when compared with uninfected explants. A single shoot tip provided sufficient material to regenerate and establish twenty-seven lucerne plants, whereas only nine plants could be regenerated from an Agrobacterium co-cultivated explant. This transformation protocol could represent a valuable improvement over existing ones for lucerne.

Seed mass and shape of grasses were analysed in a temperate flora containing 178 and 26 species belonging to C₃ and C₄ photosynthetic types respectively. The weedy character and the annual or perennial status were also considered. On the basis of the seed traits studied, three groups were distinguished: C₄ grasses, annual C₃ grasses of weedy character and perennial non-weedy C₃ grasses. The C₄ group had more isodiametric (same diameter in all directions) seed shape and lower average seed mass than the C₃ group. To our knowledge, this has not yet been described for temperate C₄ grasses and is certainly associated with their preference for open habitats where competition for light is small. Weedy annual C₃ grasses had heavier and less isodiametric seeds than C₄ grasses did. These species are mostly specialized to establish in the dense cover of perennial vegetation, and this ability distinguishes them from the C₄ group. Non-weedy perennial C₃ species possessed less isodiametric seeds than did C₄ grasses, but did not differ from weedy annual C₃ grasses. As most alien C₄ grasses naturalized in Hungary are annuals with small, isodiametric seeds, these traits are good candidates to be included in screening for potential future invasives in open habitats.

Although the process of reforestation of grassland has been widely studied in Europe, little is known about the effect of deforestation on grassland development. Thus, the specific objective of this study was to evaluate early changes in plant species composition, functional group, yield and biomass quality after deforestation of long-term abandoned pastures. The experiment was established immediately after deforestation on sparse herbaceous vegetation (mean initial cover 27%) with the following treatments: grazing management only (G0), cutting and grazing aftermath (CG), grazing after seeding of grassland mixture (GS), grazing after a burning treatment in which branches were burned after deforestation (GB) and unmanaged control (U). Very rapid recovery of bare ground by germination and/or sprouting of grassland species was similar under all types of grazing management. Total plant species richness increased in all managed treatments except GB. Similarities according to redundancy analyses in plant species composition were found among G0, CG and GB treatments, especially for forbs with correlated rosette or creeping growth. The woody species, tall grasses and tall forbs had higher abundance in the U treatment. The restoration of grassland following deforestation of formerly reforested grassland area by grazing management was a relatively fast process, and swards were created after 3 years. The highest biomass yield was observed under treatments GS and GB. Forage quality of all managed treatments was sufficient for the demands of beef cattle grazing. However, for subsequent grassland preservation, some type of grazing management is necessary to prevent reforestation, which can occur immediately after deforestation in unmanaged places.

Due to decades of loss of grassland diversity across Europe, there is a need to identify factors affecting species composition and diversity in managed meadows. The aim of the current study was to assess how ecological, landscape and management factors may affect plant species composition, biodiversity and forage value in Alpine hay meadows. Species composition, Shannon index and forage value were obtained from phytosociological relevés. Twenty explanatory variables were selected from a set of ecological, landscape and management factors. Their effects on plant species composition, Shannon index and forage value were analysed by applying the variation partitioning approach. Plant species composition was related to sixteen factors, explaining 35·6% of the variability. Shannon index and forage value were related to eleven factors, explaining 47·8 and 40·8% of their total variation respectively. Ecological factors were the main set explaining species composition and diversity, whereas none of the three individual groups of factors (ecological, landscape, management) significantly explained variability within forage value. Overall, the effects of the three groups of factors accounted for 70% of the total variability in plant species composition, but less than half that of Shannon index and of forage value.

We investigated differences between forage species with regard to micronutrients that are essential to sustain livestock health. Five grasses (timothy, perennial ryegrass, meadow fescue, tall fescue and cocksfoot), three legumes (red clover, white clover and birdsfoot trefoil) and four forbs (ribwort plantain, salad burnet, caraway and chicory) were grown on one micronutrient-poor/low pH soil and one micronutrient-rich/high pH soil (outdoor pot experiment). In addition, six grasses (timothy, perennial ryegrass, meadow fescue, tall fescue, Festulolium hybrid and cocksfoot) and one legume (red clover) were field-grown on the micronutrient-poor soil. Of the twelve pot-grown species, herbage of chicory, red clover and white clover generally had the highest micronutrient concentrations (maximum Co, Cu, Fe and Zn concentrations were 0·23, 9·8, 233 and 109 mg kg⁻¹ DM, respectively), except for Mo, which was highest in the clovers (10·6 mg kg⁻¹ DM), and Mn, which was highest in cocksfoot (375 mg kg⁻¹ DM). Soil type had the strongest effect on plant Mo and Mn concentrations. We also investigated differences in micronutrients between varieties, but they were generally few and negligible. The results indicate that choice of forage species is of major importance for micronutrient concentrations in herbage and that soil type exerts a major effect through pH. Forage of chicory, red clover and white clover generally met the requirements of high-yielding dairy cows with regard to most micronutrients; therefore, diversification of seed mixtures so as to include these species could increase micronutrient concentrations in forage.

Bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge) pastures are widespread in warm climates worldwide and respond to nitrogen (N) fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilization has recently decreased because of increased cost and concerns regarding excessive N in the environment. Responses of bahiagrass to treatments representing three alternative levels of pasture management were assessed. Treatments, each including 56 kg N ha⁻¹ applied for each growth period, were as follows: (i) six harvests with a total of 336 kg N ha⁻¹ annually (referred to as intensive management), (ii) three harvests with 168 kg N ha⁻¹ annually (intermediate management) and (iii) two harvests with 112 kg N ha⁻¹ annually (extensive management). The intensive management produced the most forage with the highest nutritive value. Intermediate management, with only half the amount of N fertilizer, produced at least 80% of the forage yield each year as the intensive management treatment (4-year average of 8236 vs. 9122 kg ha⁻¹ for the intermediate and intensive management treatments respectively) with forage of acceptable nutritive value for some classes of livestock. Limited forage production from the last harvest each year restricts autumn management opportunities, even though crude protein concentration was usually sufficient for some classes of livestock. Extended growth periods, as those that occur with the less-intensive management treatments, provide opportunities to accumulate forage for late-season grazing. Matching livestock enterprises to the forage produced, particularly in terms of nutritive value, can contribute to favourable livestock production responses from a range of bahiagrass pasture management approaches.

The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of feeding level (FL) on the digestibility of unconserved forage obtained from two permanent grasslands cut at three different dates during the first cycle of growth. Forage was offered to Texel sheep (wethers), at maintenance level and at ad libitum level. Differences in voluntary intake (VI) between grasslands were also tested. Organic matter digestibility (OMD) measured at ad libitum level and at VI was 13% higher on harvested forage from grassland rich in forbs (GRF) than grassland rich in grasses (GRG) at early herbage growth stages, but these differences were no longer found at later maturity stages. In GRF, there were no differences for OMD, at either FL at the young growth stages, but at the end of the cycle the OMD obtained at ad libitum level (0·56) was higher than that at maintenance level (0·50). However, in GRG, at an early stage of forage maturity, OMD at ad libitum level (0·67) was lower than that at maintenance level (0·70), but this difference was no longer found at the end of the growth cycle. In conclusion, the effect of FL on the digestibility of unconserved forage from permanent grasslands depends on the type of grassland. These differences are mainly explained by the different botanical composition of the grassland types.

Livestock grazing can be a means to maintain biodiversity in grasslands, but the outcome for vegetation structure and species composition depends on livestock type and grazing regime. This study aims at disentangling the effects of plant functional-group abundance and livestock type on the above- and below-ground biomass and N allocation in temperate pastures.

We investigated the effects of cattle, sheep and mixed stocking on above-ground biomass (AGB) and belowground biomass (BGB) and plant N pools in a replicated grazing experiment in two pasture community types with different plant functional-group abundance (diverse vs. grass-dominated swards).

In the six treatments, AGB was reduced up to 80% compared with an ungrazed control. Cattle reduced AGB to a larger extent than sheep in diverse pastures (80 vs 44% reduction) while sheep grazing tended to do so in grass-dominated pastures (57 vs 46% reduction); mixed stocking led to intermediate values. Grazing reduced AGB more than the N pool in AGB, thus lowering the biomass C/N ratio relative to the ungrazed control. Neither BGB nor the N pool in BGB differed between the grazing treatments and the control plots.

We conclude that livestock type and functional-group abundance are interacting factors that influence plant biomass and N pools in swards of managed temperate pastures. The contrasting biomass removal rates of cattle and sheep could be used to increase the structural heterogeneity and total plant species pool of pastures by keeping different livestock species in neighbouring patches.

A 2-year whole-farm system study compared the accumulation, utilization and nutritive value of grass in spring-calving grass-based systems differing in stocking rate (SR) and calving date (CD). Six treatments (systems) were compared over two complete grazing seasons. Stocking rates used in the study were low (2·5 cows ha⁻¹), medium (2·9 cows ha⁻¹) and high (3·3 cows ha⁻¹), respectively, and mean CDs were 12 February (early) and 25 February (late). Each system had its own farmlet of eighteen paddocks and one herd that remained on the same farmlet area for the duration of the study. Stocking rate had a small effect on total herbage accumulation (11 860 kg DM ha⁻¹ year⁻¹), but had no effect on total herbage utilization (11 700 kg DM ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). Milk and milk solids (MS; fat + protein) production per ha increased by 2580 and 196 kg ha⁻¹ as SR increased from 2·5 to 3·3 cows ha⁻¹. Milk production per ha and net herbage accumulation and utilization were unaffected by CD. Winter feed production was reduced as SR increased. Increased SR, associated with increased grazing severity, resulted in swards of increased leaf content and nutritive value. The results indicate that, although associated with increased milk production per ha, grazed grass utilization and improved sward nutritive value, the potential benefits of increased SR on Irish dairy farms can only be realized if the average level of herbage production and utilization is increased.

Themeda triandra Forssk. is one of the most widespread grasses in the dry to mesic prairie ecosystems of Africa, Asia and Australia. It is of particular interest due to its high value as a forage species for wildlife and livestock, and its potential use in landscaping practices. In this review we have collated information from the many studies that have been devoted to this species since the 1960s to provide information about the species' distribution, taxonomy, morphology, ploidy and reproduction, and to describe its vegetation and germination and their relationship with the most important ecological aspects of its preferred habitats. Agronomic aspects are considered in detail, with particular focus on the role of T. triandra as a forage species and the relative importance of grazing, fire and rainfall regimes for its management. We also explore how this species can help with the rehabilitation of degraded areas, soil and water conservation, countering exotic species invasion and landscaping in general. We conclude with a brief discussion of the as yet unresolved taxonomic relationship between the African species T. triandra and the Australian species Themeda australis.

Understanding the relationships between farmers' land-use and management decisions, and plant diversity is a challenge. It requires characterization of plant diversity within and between fields and investigation of land-use allocation to fields. To analyse how grassland functional composition [mean plant trait and functional diversity index (FD)] varies according to scale (field, land-use type: cutting, grazing, farm), grasslands were characterized according to leaf dry-matter content (leaf DM) and FD computed from leaf DM values. A leaf DM-αFD framework was used to analyse how leaf DM-based plant strategies were distributed at land-use type and farm scales (βFD). The study was conducted on eight dairy and beef farms (169 grasslands) differing in their stocking rate. At field and land-use type scales, leaf DM was significantly decreased and increased with N fertilizer rate and field elevation respectively. It was significantly higher for grazing than for cutting. At the farm scale, the main differences between farms resulted from differences in plant strategy distribution between land-use types within a farm and among farms for a given land-use type in relation to management intensity. Farms that contributed the most to αFD had the highest stocking rate, and those which had the most contrasting grasslands for management intensity had the highest βFD. Management practices need to be examined at a land-use type scale for evaluating the within- and between-field plant functional compositions. By contrast, the value of the analysis was reduced if data were collected and averaged at the farm scale.

The chemical composition of silage consumed by cattle can influence the subsequent rumen microbial fermentation patterns and methane (CH₄) emissions. The objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the effect of ensilage on the in vitro rumen methane output of perennial ryegrass and (ii) relate the silage fermentation characteristics of grass silages with in vitro rumen methanogenesis. Three pre-harvest herbage-conditioning treatments and seven silage-additive treatments were used in a laboratory-scale silo experiment to produce a diversity of silage fermentation characteristics. Ensilage reduced (P < 0·01) the in vitro rumen CH₄ output (mL CH₄ g⁻¹ dry matter (DM) disappeared). This reflected differences in the direction of rumen fermentation (lower acetic (P < 0·05) and higher propionic (P < 0·001) acid proportions in volatile fatty acids) rather than major changes in the extent of in vitro rumen fermentation (i.e. mmol VFA g⁻¹ DM). The magnitude of the decrease in CH₄ output (mL g⁻¹ DM incubated) owing to ensilage increased as the extent of silage fermentation, and in particular the lactic acid concentration, increased. In contrast, among silages with relatively similar extents of silage fermentation (i.e. total fermentation products), an increase in the proportion of lactic acid in silage fermentation products led to a more extensive in vitro rumen fermentation and thus to a greater CH₄ output (mL g⁻¹ DM).

The experiment was conducted in 2005–2007 to evaluate weight performance, blood parameters associated with forage nutrient-use and anaemia from gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection, and faecal egg count (FEC) patterns of meat-goat kids finished on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.; ALF); red clover/grass mixture (Trifolium pratense L.; RCG); and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L; OGR) pastures. Forage mass, crude protein (CP) and total digestible nutrients (TDN) displayed complex interactions between treatment and time (P < 0·001) across the grazing seasons. Final body weight was greater for goats finished on ALF and RCG than on OGR, except in 2006 when ALF was greater than RCG or OGR. The TDN/CP ratios in forages and blood urea nitrogen concentrations in grazing goats were highly correlated (r = 0·99; P = 0·02) and suggested that animals were wasting forage protein. Faecal egg count was variable over the grazing season each year (date and treatment × date interaction; P < 0·001), but in general, FEC indicated that goat kids grazing ALF were less affected by GIN than kids grazing RCG or OGR. Research is needed to determine whether strategic energy supplementation would improve protein-use efficiency and resilience to parasite infection when finishing meat goats on pastures managed for high forage nutritive value.

The technique of enhancing species diversity by spreading species-rich green hay following turf scarification was tested in a semi-improved meadow site in Cumbria, UK. Botanical assessments were carried out in May 2008 (prior to treatment), May and October 2009, and May 2010. Both total species-richness (number of species per m²) and the richness and aggregate cover of positive indicator species were enhanced by hay spreading, with an average of 21·8 species per m² compared with 17·0–18·7 species per m² for other treatments by May 2010. Significant increases in all three variables occurred by May 2009, with even greater increases between this assessment and May 2010. Hay spreading introduced seven new species, most of which subsequently increased over time, and enhanced the frequency of a further seven. All these species together accounted for only about 5% of vegetation cover in 2010, but the level of species-richness achieved was equivalent to that of good quality semi-improved grassland and also equivalent to that achieved in studies where the technique was developed. Results are discussed in detail in relation to the seeding phenology of species at the donor site, as are other factors affecting the technique's potential and possible means of enhancing it.

This study tested the hypothesis that different sward structures, which were constructed by varying the pre- and post-grazing sward heights of annual ryegrass pasture (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) in southern Brazil, affect the short-term intake rate (STIR) by dairy cows. Treatments consisted of four sward-management strategies defined by a combination of two pre- (25 and 15 cm) and two post-grazing sward heights (10 and 5 cm): 15-05, 15-10, 25-05 and 25-10. A completely randomized block design with four replicates was used for the experimental design. The STIR was determined by the double-weighing technique. Jaw movements were evaluated using automatic recorders (IGER Behaviour Recorder). The results showed that treatment 25-10 allowed the animals to collect more herbage with a greater bite mass and thus resulted in a greater STIR. Treatments in which sward height was reduced to 10 cm generally favoured the ingestion process than treatments with a post-grazing sward height of 5 cm.

In reproductive swards, stems can act as a barrier that affects the grazing behaviour of ruminant livestock. The barrier effect of stems is closely associated with both the force required to fracture the stems and the density of these stems (in combination, these make up grazing resistance), and these factors need to be considered when making predictions about the forage intake of ruminants grazing reproductive pastures. Differences in grazing resistance between sward canopy layers of different grass species are thought to affect bite dimensions, but data are scarce. In this study, we assessed the grazing resistance for three canopy layers of seven tropical grass species. Species differed significantly in grazing resistance for every canopy layer, with a general ranking order for grazing resistance, in ascending order: Cenchrus ciliaris (‘American' buffel), Digitaria milanjiana (‘Jarra’ finger grass), Setaria surgens (annual pigeon grass), Setaria sphacelata (‘Narok’ setaria), Dichanthium sericeum (Queensland bluegrass), Chloris gayana (‘Callide’ Rhodes grass). In the top canopy layer, grazing resistance did not appear to create a barrier for any of the species, but in the bottom canopy layer, it did for all species. Species also differed in the relative contribution of fracture force and density to grazing resistance. The results highlight the importance of managing the grazing systems to minimize the barrier effect of the stems, which can be done by controlling the phenological stage of the pasture and the grass species and animal size used in the system.

The effects of dormancy-regulating chemicals (DRCs) on alleviating innate and salinity-induced dormancy (SID) were assessed in seeds of four perennial forage grasses (Pennisetum divisum, Sporobolus spicatus, Coelachyrum brevifolium and Centropodia forsskalii). These grasses have the potential to be used for restoration or rehabilitation of degraded rangelands of the Arabian Gulf deserts. The four species showed various levels of innate dormancy. Germination of seeds stored for 2 months was not enhanced by any of the five studied DRCs in both C. brevifolium and P. divisum, but significantly improved by thiourea, fusicoccin and gibberellic acid (GA) in C. forsskalii and by thiourea, fusicoccin and nitrate in S. spicatus. Salinity had a significant negative effect on all the studied grasses. Sporobolus spicatus was more tolerant to salinity, compared with the other species. The effect of DRCs on alleviating SID depended on species. Whereas DRCs had little effect on alleviating SID in C. forsskalii and P. divisum, they greatly alleviated it in S. spicatus and C. brevifolium. Partial alleviation was observed by fusicoccin in C. brevifolium and by GA, kinetin and thiourea in C. forsskalii. Nitrate, fusicoccin and GA resulted in a complete alleviation in S. spicatus seeds in 200 mm NaCl.

Species-rich alpine grasslands with Nardus stricta are important communities for both animal production and environmental conservation in Europe. We selected two contrasting types of Nardus grasslands (mesic and wet) within a rangeland of northern Spain and measured annual above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP), botanical components, forage utilization and their respective seasonal patterns, during a 5-year period. We analysed their chemical properties and recorded soil moisture and temperature in order to construct models able to explain grassland productivity. Mean annual ANPP of mesic Nardus grassland was about half (216 g DM m⁻² year⁻¹; ±29·8 s.e.) that of the wet grassland (406 g DM m⁻² year⁻¹; ±54·3 s.e.), with significant intra- and interannual variability. Mesic grassland, with a more important contribution of forbs and legumes over graminoids in its botanical composition, was the preferred forage source of grazing livestock and showed better chemical properties in spring and early summer. In summer and autumn, wet grassland had a higher utilization owing to its ability to maintain high biomass production. This was partially explained by soil moisture, a limiting factor of mesic grassland productivity. Our results provide new and relevant information on key aspects of species-rich alpine Nardus grasslands, potentially useful for the definition of management options for these habitats of priority conservation.

The intensification of grazed pasture systems in New Zealand has resulted in increased nitrate () leaching and associated significant reductions in water quality, resulting from high N loading in the cow urine patch. A glasshouse soil column experiment was conducted at Lincoln University examining the N uptake capacities and leaching losses of sixteen commercial and ‘weed’ pasture grasses, comprising thirteen species. Three dairy cow urine N treatments (N loading rates) were applied in May 2010: 0 (N0), 300 (N300) and 700 (N700) kg N ha⁻¹. Grass was harvested at 21-d intervals, leachates collected to quantify N leaching losses and root mass measured. Shoot yield, root mass, N uptake and N leaching loss varied significantly between species (P < 0·001) and were strongly driven by N loading rate. The highest yielding species at N700 were Lolium multiflorum ‘Feast 2’ and ‘Tama’ (782 and 743 g DM m⁻²), while Festuca arundinacea ‘Flecha’ and Lolium perenne ‘Alto' were lowest yielding (375 and 419 g DM m⁻²). Plant N uptake and root mass followed a similar trend, and only moderate increases in total plant N uptake were observed for most species when urine N application rate was increased from N300 to N700. N leaching loss was highest at N700 for F. arundinacea ‘Flecha’ (378 kg N ha⁻¹) and lowest for L. multiflorum ‘Feast 2’ and ‘Tama’ (134 and 130 kg N ha⁻¹). Strong negative linear relationships were observed between N leaching loss, plant N uptake and root mass. The results indicate that species such as L. multiflorum may play a critical role in reducing pasture N leaching losses, while traditionally sown L. perenne, and also F. arundinacea, may be less suitable.

Various management practices (e.g. wilting, application of silage additives or adding a grass component) can be used to improve silage fermentation of pure red clover (Trifolium pratense L.). Therefore, the aim of this laboratory ensiling study was to investigate the effects of varying proportions of red clover and perennial ryegrass (100/0, 66/33, 33/66, 0/100) on silage quality during two consecutive years. In addition, two wilting levels [target dry matter (DM): 300 vs. 400 g kg⁻¹] in combination with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) additives were tested. Herbage was ensiled, either untreated or inoculated with homofermentative LAB (low wilted) or homo- and heterofermentative LAB (high wilted). In most cases, lactic and acetic acid decreased as the proportions of ryegrass were increased. Data concerning ammonia-N concentrations showed considerable differences between cuts and years. Silages treated with homofermentative LAB generally had high lactic acid and low final pH, whereas acetic acid and 1,2-propanediol tended to be higher when homo- and heterofermentative LAB were applied. Inoculants had a positive effect on DM losses and ammonia-N in only a few silages. Wilting decreased DM losses and fermentation acids at most cuts, irrespective of the grass/clover ratio in the herbage mixture. There was a strong year effect on the organic matter digestibility (DOM) of the silages. In conclusion, the optimal strategy for successful silage fermentation of red clover is the ensiling in mixtures with ryegrass. Furthermore, herbage should be wilted to a DM content of about 300–350 g kg⁻¹. The application of LAB inoculants did not alter the DOM but did improve silage fermentation.

Grasses on the Pakistani coast are moderately to highly salt tolerant and have potential for utilization as a cash crop. This study was designed to determine whether seed germination of three halophytic grasses (Phragmites karka, Dichanthium annulatum and Eragrostis ciliaris) could be improved by exogenous application of ascorbic acid (AsA) under saline conditions. Seeds of P. karka were germinated in varying concentrations of NaCl and AsA under different temperature regimes, and seeds of Dichanthium annulatum and Eragrostis ciliaris were germinated at optimal temperatures only. In P. karka, concentrations of AsA (5 and 10 mM) alleviated the salinity effects better at cooler and moderate thermo-periods, whereas higher concentrations (20 mM of AsA) failed to improve germination under all temperature regimes. AsA was ineffective at a warmer thermo-period (25/35°C). The rate of germination also increased at all thermo-periods with the application of AsA except at 25/35°C under saline conditions. Application of AsA improved the germination of E. ciliaris seeds under saline conditions but was inhibitory for D. annulatum in comparison with the untreated control. The rate of germination followed the similar pattern as that of seed germination. Results indicate that AsA has the ability to partially alleviate the effect of salinity on seed germination of some grass species under optimal temperature regime.