A new subtribe Febraina subtr.n. is established with Febra Clark designated as the type genus. Cladistic analysis based on morphological characters is carried out to reveal the composition of a new subtribe and to test its monophyly. Subtribe includes the following genera: Chilocoristes Weise; Halticorcus Lea; Setsaltica Samuelson; Maaltica Samuelson; Axillofebra Samuelson; Profebra Samuelson. Bionomical features of the genera of the subtribe are summarised. The syndrome of hemisphery is recorded for the genera of the subtribe, and morphological transformation resulting in hemisphery is described and discussed. Correspondence between direction of morphological transformation, phylogenetic arrangement of genera, and distributional pattern is recorded and discussed.

We provide objective criteria for assessing the taxonomic status of genera, especially those that are monotypic, using the coccid genus Taiwansaissetia Tao, Wong & Chang. This genus contains only the type species, Lecanium formicarii Green [currently Taiwansaissetia formicarii (Green)], known from the Afrotropical and Oriental regions. Here, Taiwansaissetia is synonymised (syn.nov.) with Coccus Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on the basis of phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data and morphological examination. All analyses (maximum parsimony, neighbour-joining and Bayesian inference) of four gene regions (18S, 28S, COI and EF-1α), and a concatenation of these regions, placed the clade including T. formicarii and three unidentified Coccus specimens as sister to the type species of Coccus, C. hesperidum Linnaeus, with high support. Taiwansaissetia formicarii is more closely related to C. hesperidum than C. hesperidum is to C. viridis (Green), which is considered to be a ‘typical’ species of Coccus, and several other current members of Coccus [C. longulus (Douglas), C. penangensis Morrison and C. pseudomagnoliarum (Kuwana)]. Explicit criteria, including monophyly, diagnosability, sister taxa being of equal rank, and the level of genetic divergence between T. formicarii and C. hesperidum relative to within-genus divergence of other scale insects, were used to assess the taxonomic status of Taiwansaissetia. The autapomorphic features of Taiwansaissetia that differentiate it from typical species of Coccus might be due to its myrmecophilous habit and adaptation to living inside ant nests – most other species of Coccus live externally on their host plants. Since its description in 1896, T. formicarii has been placed in four different genera: here we transfer it back to Coccus as C. formicarii (Green) stat.rev. We rediagnose the genus Coccus to accommodate the features of C. formicarii. This study also found that Coccus might not be monophyletic, warranting further study of the group.

To analyse speciation within the large Neotropical genus Campsurus Eaton, we examined apparent subgroupings by morphological methods using discrete and continuous character states. In this report, the albifilum group is redefined based on redescription of male imagos of Campsurus albifilum from the holotype and fresh material and from four closely related new species: Campsurus yavarin.sp. and C. fuliginatusn.sp. described from male imagos; and C. homaulosn.sp. and C. gracilipenisn.sp. described from imagos of both sexes. An illustrated key to distinguish the male adults of all species in the albifilum group is included. A phylogeny of the group is proposed based on a matrix of seven continuous and 12 discrete characters analysed under implied weights, and includes additional species representing all known or previously proposed groups. This demonstrates the practical application of methods using continuous characters to give additional resolution and support to the phylogeny. The monophyly of the major and the albifilum groups is confirmed. Based on these results, a biogeographical analysis is conducted (spatial analysis of vicariance) based on distributional records for each species. Two main vicariant events are found: (i) a west–east separation in tropical-subtropical South American lowlands, followed by (ii) a north–south separation of the Amazonas and Paraná regions. Sympatric speciation seems common: most sister species pairs are co-distributed, and show nonoverlapping ranges in body size.

Members of Leperina Erichson (Trogossitidae: Gymnochilini) from New Zealand, New Caledonia and Lord Howe Island are morphologically similar to members of the endemic Juan Fernandez Island genus Phanodesta Reitter, sharing at least one obvious character, elytral carinae that are beaded and contain well-defined punctures. To test the monophyly of Leperina and Phanodesta, we reconstructed phylogenetic relationships of the genera of the tribe Gymnochilini by a cladistic analysis of 22 terminals and 47 adult characters rooted with one genus of trogossitine. Leperina is rendered paraphyletic by the placements of Seidlitzella Jakobson and Phanodesta. Kolibacian.gen. (type species Leperina tibialis Reitter) is described for east Palaearctic species included formerly in Leperina (two new combinations); New Zealand Leperina and other species from New Caledonia and Lord Howe Island (Ostoma pudicum Olliff) are transferred to Phanodesta (six new combinations); and the remaining species are retained in Leperina. The following species are described as new: Phanodesta carinatan.sp.,P. manawatawhin.sp.,P. oculatan.sp. and P. tepakin.sp.Leperina ambiguum Broun is transferred to Grynoma Sharp resulting in a new combination and three new synonymies for New Zealand trogossitines: Leperina interrupta Brookes n.syn. and Leperina sobrina (White) n.syn. [= Phanodesta farinosa (Sharp)], and Trogosita affinis White n.syn. (= Tenebroides mauritanicus Linnaeus). A key to the New Zealand species and a checklist for the species of the Kolibacia, Leperina and Phanodesta are provided. The derived placement of Juan Fernandez Phanodesta in the phylogeny is evidence for long-distance dispersal from Australasia. A tally of all Juan Fernandez Islands Coleoptera shows derivation mostly from Chile and South America, with few from the southern Pacific region, rarely from Australasia.

Combining pheromone trapping and genetic analyses can be useful when trying to resolve complexes of closely related insect taxa that are difficult to distinguish based on morphological characters. Nearctic and Palearctic populations of the spruce seed moth, Cydia strobilella L., have been considered taxonomically synonymous since 1983, but more recent work revealing distinct sex pheromones for Canadian and Swedish moths suggest that populations in the two regions belong to different species. In order to test this hypothesis, we performed field trapping using different pheromone lures at ten sites in North America, Europe and Asia, and reconstructed phylogenetic relationships among trapped moths using mitochondrial (cytochrome oxidase subunit I) and nuclear (elongation factor 1 alpha) DNA sequence data. Trapping data and tree topologies for both genes revealed distinct pherotypes in North America and Eurasia. A genetically distinct population from China was investigated further with respect to its sex pheromone. Electrophysiological data indicated that Chinese females produce a deviant ratio of the sex pheromone components (dienic acetates) compared to Swedish females. However, trapping experiments in both areas revealed a similar broad response profile in males to a wide range of acetate ratios, and these populations should be considered taxonomically synonymous. A previous suggestion of an agonistic effect on the attraction of C. strobilella males in Sweden when adding the corresponding alcohols to the binary acetate blend was also tested in Sweden as well as in China, with no observed effect on attraction of males. In conclusion, our study demonstrates the great potential of using pheromone trapping as a tool for identification and delimitation of taxa within cryptic species complexes. Based on our data, Nearctic and Palearctic populations of C. strobilella should be considered different species, and C. youngana Kearfott stat. rev. is resurrected here as valid name for North American populations, which was the case before the revision in 1983.

This study examines the contribution of early-stages and adult characters to the reconstruction of the phylogeny of Brassolini butterflies. Parsimony analyses used both equal weights and implied weights, and a series of analyses were performed. First, we analysed adult and early-stages partitions independently and in combination for a subset of 27 species; in these cases the matrices were mostly complete. Whereas the adult partition alone produced a topology that was well resolved and congruent with previous studies, the early-stages partition produced a poorly resolved tree under equal weights. Furthermore, implied weights produced a well-resolved early-stages topology that differed significantly from the adult topology. When both partitions were combined for 27 species, implied weights yielded a topology that resembled the adult tree except for the positions of Bia and Penetes, but statistical node support was generally lower. This suggests that stochastic noise increased when early-stage characters were added to the adult partition, but the combined partitions topology was not statistically different from that based on adult characters alone. Second, given that preserved early stages are not as readily available as adults, we analysed a matrix including 45 species in which early-stage data were missing for 18 species, and compared the topology to that produced by the adult partition alone. Results were similar to the analyses including fewer species; the combined partitions tree was similar to that from the adult partition except for the position of Bia and Penetes. We compare our findings to other genus-level phylogenetic studies within Lepidoptera that have also used early-stages and adult characters.

We re-examine the higher level phylogeny and evolutionary affinities of the family Gelechiidae (Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea) based on DNA sequence data for one mitochondrial gene (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) and seven nuclear genes (Elongation Factor-1α, wingless, Ribosomal protein S5, Isocitrate dehydrogenase, Cytosolic malate dehydrogenase, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and Carbamoylphosphate synthase domain protein). Fifty-two taxa representing nearly all established subfamilies and tribes of Gelechiidae, and about 10% of described gelechiid genera, in addition to five outgroup taxa were sequenced. Data matrices (6157 bp total) were analysed under model-based evolutionary methods (Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference), resulting in novel high-level phylogenetic interrelationships. The best supported cladogram divided the Gelechiidae into six distinct clades corresponding to the subfamilies Anacampsinae, Dichomeridinae, Apatetrinae, Thiotrichinae, Anomologinae and Gelechiinae (+ Physoptilinae, which were not available for study). The results suggest the following adjustments in gelechiid interrelationships: Brachmini is nested within Dichomeridinae; Anarsiini is the sister group of Chelariini; Pexicopiinae is the sister group of Apatetrinae, here suggested to be treated as a tribe Pexicopiini of Apatetrinae. A new subfamily Thiotrichinae (subfam.n.) is proposed on the basis of the resurrected genus Thiotricha Meyrick (gen.rev.), which includes Macrenches Meyrick, Palumbina Rondani and Polyhymno Chambers. Gelechiidae display a wide array of life-history strategies, but the diversity in patterns of larval mode of life has direct phylogenetic correlation only below subfamily level, suggesting multiple origins and/or frequent reversals for traits such as external or internal feeding and leaf mining within the family.

Molecular sequences now overwhelm morphology in phylogenetic inference. Nonetheless, most molecular studies are conducted on a limited number of taxa, as DNA rarely can be analysed from old museum types or fossils. During the last 20 years, more than 150 molecular studies have challenged the current phylogenetic classification of the family Drosophilidae Rondani based on morphological characters. Most studies concerned a single genus, Drosophila Fallén, and included only few representative species from 17 out of the 78 genera of the family. Therefore, these molecular studies were unable to provide an alternative classification scheme. A supermatrix analysis of seven nuclear and one mitochondrial genes (8248 bp) for 33 genera was conducted using outgroups from one calyptrate and four ephydroid families. The Bayesian phylogeny was consistent with previous molecular studies including whole genome sequences and divided the Drosophilidae into four monophyletic clades. Morphological characters, mostly male genitalia, then were compared thoroughly between the four clades and homologous character states were identified. These states were then checked for 70 genera and a revised phylogenetic, family-group classification for the Drosophilidae is proposed. Two genera –Cladochaeta Coquillett and Diathoneura Duda – of the tribe Cladochaetini Grimaldi are transferred to the family Ephydridae. The Drosophilidae is divided into two subfamilies: Steganinae Hendel (30 genera) and Drosophilinae Rondani (43 genera). A further two genera, Apacrochaeta Duda and Sphyrnoceps de Meijere, are incertae sedis, and Palmophila Grimaldi, is synonymized with Drosophilasyn.n. The Drosophilinae is subdivided into two tribes: the re-elevated Colocasiomyini Okada (nine genera) and Drosophilini Okada. The paraphyly of the genus Drosophila was not resolved to avoid affecting the binomina of important laboratory model species; however, its subgeneric classification was revised in light of molecular and morphological data. Three subgenera, namely Chusqueophila Brncic, Phloridosa Sturtevant and Psilodorha Okada, were synonymized with the subgenus Drosophila (Drosophila) Fallén syns.n. Among the 45 species groups and 5 species complexes of Drosophila (Drosophila), 22 groups and 1 complex were transferred to the subgenus Drosophila (Siphlodora) Patterson & Mainland and 6 groups, 2 species subgroups and 3 complexes are considered incertae sedis within the genus Drosophila. Different morphological characters provide different signals at different phylogenetic scales: thoracic characters (wing venation and presternal shape) discriminate families; grasping and erection-related characters discriminate subfamilies to tribes; whereas phallic paraphyses, i.e. auxiliary intromittent organs, discriminate genera and Drosophila subgenera. The study shows the necessity of analysing morphological characters within a molecular phylogenetic framework to translate molecular phylogenies into taxonomically-comprehensive classifications.

The Andes, the world's longest mountain chain, harbours great taxonomic and ecological diversity. Despite their young age, the tropical Andes are highly diverse due to recent geological uplift. Speciation either followed the orogeny closely or occurred after the Andean uplift, as a result of subsequent climatic changes. Different scenarios have been proposed to explain the diversification of high Andean taxa. The Melanoplinae grasshopper Ponderacris Ronderos & Cigliano is endemic to the eastern slopes of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, mostly distributed between 1000 and 4000 m above sea level. Diversification in several montane habitats of Bolivia and Peru allows tests via cladistic analysis of distinct possible geographic modes of speciation. Eight species are recognized, with three described here as new with revised diagnostic morphological characters provided: Ponderacris carlcarbonellisp.n.,P. chulumaniensissp.n. and P. amboroensissp.n. Cladistic analyses of 15 species (8 ingroup and 7 outgroup) and 38 morphological characters, under equal and implied weighting, confirm the monophyly of Ponderacris. Characters from the external morphology and colour pattern provided less phylogenetic information than did the male abdominal terminalia and phallic complex. Species distributed in the Peruvian Andes constituted a monophyletic group, whereas those from the Bolivian Andes formed a basal paraphyletic grade. Dispersal–vicariance analysis resulted in one ancestral distribution reconstruction indicating that the most recent common ancestor was distributed in the Lower Montane Yungas of Bolivia. Eleven dispersal and one vicariant events are postulated, with a South-to-North speciation pattern coincident with progressive Andean uplift. Vicariance could relate to fragmentation of montane forest during the dry intervals of the late Cenozoic. From the Bolivian area, ancestral Peruvian Ponderacris may have dispersed northward, coinciding with the rise of the Andes. Ten of 11 dispersal events occurred at terminal taxa and are likely to be recent. However, diversification of Ponderacris cannot be explained solely by the South-to-North speciation hypothesis, but may also include both vicariance and dispersal across barriers influenced by Pleistocene climatic cycles.

Philonthina, the largest subtribe of the rove beetle tribe Staphylinini, is a hyperdiverse group in the Neotropical Region, accounting for about half of the genera of the subtribe. Despite such diversity, Neotropical Philonthina have never been analysed phylogenetically, deterring formulation of a modern classification of the Staphylinini. A cladistic analysis of Neotropical Philonthina was performed based on 110 morphological characters and 77 terminal taxa. Representatives of Philonthina from other regions and other main lineages of Staphylinini, Arrowinini and Platyprosopini were included to test their relationships with Neotropical Philonthina. The major results are the monophyly of 11 of the 17 endemic Neotropical genera of Philonthina, the placement of Holisus Erichson (Hyptiomina) into this clade showing a sister group relationship to myrmecophile genera, and the position of Erichsonius Fauvel outside of Philonthina within Staphylinini. Six of the current seven species of Endeius Coiffait & Sáiz group with Neotropical species of Philonthus Stephens. The separation of Gondwana about 65 my and major landscape modifications in the vast interior of northern South America during the past 25 my is proposed to explain the evolution of the endemic Neotropical genera of Philonthina. The following taxonomic changes are proposed: Erichsonius Fauvel, 1874 now placed as incertae sedis in Staphylinini; Endeius Coiffait & Sáiz, 1968, n.syn. of Philonthus Stephens, 1929 and Endeius nitidipennis (Solier, 1849) placed as incertae sedis in Philonthina. The following new combinations are proposed: Philonthus franzi (Sáiz, 1971), comb.n., Philonthus loensis (Coiffait & Sáiz, 1968), comb.n., Philonthus lugubris (Sáiz, 1971), comb.n., Philonthus ovaliceps (Coiffait, 1981), comb.n., Philonthus punctipennis (Solier, 1849), comb.res. and Philonthus subpunctipennis (Coiffait & Sáiz, 1968), comb.n.Philonthus herberti, n.nov., is proposed for Philonthus franziSchillhammer, 1998, which is a junior secondary homonym of Philonthus franzi (Sáiz, 1971).

The monophyly and phylogenetic relationships within the species rich Sciophilini (Diptera: Mycetophilidae) were analysed, based on 96 adult morphological characters. The cladistic analysis included 80 Sciophilini exemplar species (representing all but 1 of the 36 genera placed previously in the Sciophilini) and 11 outgroup taxa of other mycetophilid tribes. The monophyly of Sciophilini was supported in the parsimony analysis by four synapomorphies. The tribe now contains 34 genera: Acnemia Winnertz, Acomoptera Vockeroth, Adicroneura Vockeroth, Afrocnemia Matile, Allocotocera Mik, Anaclileia Meunier, Aneura Marshall, Austrosciophila Tonnoir, Azana Walker, Baeopterogyna Vockeroth, Cluzobra Edwards, Drepanocercus Vockeroth, Duretophragma Borkent gen.n., Eudicrana Loew, Leptomorphus Curtis, Loicia Vockeroth, Megalopelma Enderlein, Monoclona Mik, Morganiella Tonnoir & Edwards, Neoallocotocera Tonnoir, Neoaphelomera Miller, Neotrizygia Tonnoir & Edwards, Neuratelia Rondani, Paramorganiella Tonnoir, Paratinia Mik, Paratrizygia Tonnoir, Parvicellula Marshall, Phthinia Winnertz, Polylepta Winnertz, Sciophila Meigen, Stenophragma Skuse, Tasmanina Tonnoir, Taxicnemis Tonnoir & Edwards, and Trizygia Skuse. Four genera placed previously in Sciophilini (Coelophthinia Edwards, Impleta Plassmann, Speolepta Edwards and Syntemna Winnertz) are transferred to the Gnoristini. Neoneurotelia Shinji and Neoparatinia Shinji are considered nomina dubia. Diagnoses are given for all genera in the tribe. Duretophragmagen.n. is described for the following species (all of which are comb.n.): Duretophragma andina (Duret), Duretophragma argentina (Duret), Duretophragma glabanum (Johannsen), Duretophragma fusca (Edwards), Duretophragma humeralis (Edwards), Duretophragma intermedia (Edwards), Duretophragma longifurcata (Freeman) (type species), Duretophragma morigenea (Edwards), Duretophragma naumanni (Duret), Duretophragma nigricauda (Edwards), Duretophragma obscura (Duret), Duretophragma ochracea (Freeman), Duretophragma pleuralis (Edwards) and Duretophragma similis (Johannsen). Other new generic combinations include: Trizygia albidens (Oliveira & Amorim) comb.n., Trizygia alvesi (Oliveira & Amorim) comb.n., Trizygia balbi (Oliveira & Amorim) comb.n., Trizygia camargoi (Oliveira & Amorim) comb.n. and Afrocnemia stellamicans (Chandler) comb.n.

Developing genetic markers for the identification of recently diverged groups, such as ecotypes or species complexes, remains difficult due to challenges with incomplete lineage sorting, hybridization and introgression. Genome-wide scans of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have proven useful for inferring patterns of genetic differentiation at the population level. In combination with a new analytical technique, the discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC), and within the framework of iterative taxonomy, it may also be possible to extract a combination of SNPs as markers for the delimitation of closely related groups. In addition, since DAPC identifies the loci contributing the most to group clustering, it may be possible to link putative biological function to differences that define group boundaries. We tested this technique on two ecotypes of the hemlock looper (Lambdina fiscellaria), which differ in terms of number of larval stadia, developmental rate and fecundity. It was possible to separately cluster the two ecotypes with 95% correct assignment using 27 SNPs. We also determined that a storage hexamerin carried eight of these SNPs, including the two highest contributing loci, of which the top contributor was nonsynonymous. Other studies have found this protein to be highly expressed just before metamorphosis, pointing to a possible connection between its role in clustering ecotypes and its biological function. These SNP markers can now be further developed for high throughput delimitation of individuals of unknown ecotype identity.

The nymphalid butterfly tribe Preponini includes some of the Neotropical region's most spectacular and familiar butterflies, but the taxonomy of the group nevertheless remains unstable. Several recent studies of Nymphalidae phylogeny have suggested that both the tribe itself and several genera might not be monophyletic, but to date taxon sampling has not been sufficiently comprehensive to allow informed revision of the group's systematics. We therefore conducted the first complete species-level phylogenetic study of the tribe to establish a firm higher classification. We used DNA sequence data from three genes, the two mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase subunits I and II (COI and COII), and the nuclear gene elongation factor-1α (EF-1α), to reconstruct the phylogeny of the tribe using maximum likelihood (ML), maximum parsimony (MP) and Bayesian inference (BI). We included 48 individuals representing the 22 recognised Preponini species, and an additional 25 out-group taxa to explore taxonomic limits at different levels. Firstly, we found that Anaeomorpha splendida Rothschild never grouped with remaining Preponini, so that maintaining monophyly of the tribe requires the taxon to be excluded, and we thus reinstate the tribe Anaeomorphini stat.rev. Secondly, we investigated generic limits, in particular the relationship of Noreppa Rydon to Archaeoprepona Fruhstorfer, and that of Agrias Doubleday to Prepona Boisduval. The molecular results coupled with previous morphological studies suggest that Noreppasyn.n should be synonymised with Archaeoprepona, and that Agriassyn.n should be synonymised with Prepona. We found Prepona pheridamas (Cramer) to be sister to all other Prepona, and markedly divergent from them in both morphology and DNA sequences, suggesting the possibility that it should be placed in a separate genus. We also found a number of cases of significant DNA sequence divergence and paraphyly or polyphyly within putative species that require further taxonomic attention, including Prepona claudina (Godart) stat.n. and Prepona narcissus (Staudinger) stat.n.,Prepona pylene Hewitson and Prepona deiphile (Godart). Future research should focus on a broader population sampling of widespread, polymorphic Preponini species to thoroughly revise the current species-level taxonomy, thus creating a solid foundation for studies in ecology and conservation.