Culex molestus was probably introduced into Australia in the 1940s and represents a potentially important nuisance-biting pest and vector of disease-causing pathogens in urban areas. The aims of this study were to review the literature to determine the current and historical distribution of Cx. molestus in Australia, analyse the genetic similarity of specimens collected from various locations in Australia with reference to specimens from North America, Asia and Europe, and document the seasonal abundance of this mosquito in the Sydney region. Results showed that Cx. molestus is common in southern Australia, but there was no evidence that this mosquito is found north of latitude 28.17°S. Molecular analysis indicated that specimens from various locations throughout Australia shared strong genetic similarity and that it was most likely introduced from Asia, possibly through multiple introductions over the past 70 years. Analysis of the seasonal abundance of Cx. molestus indicated that the species does not display diapause during the cooler months. Consideration should be given to the unique biology and ecology of this species when assessing the public health risk and the surveillance methods required in the management of Cx. molestus within urban areas of Australia.

The South African citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii Faure, 1929, is highly polyphagous in its country of origin. Introduced to Australia in about 2002, populations of this thrips have been found only on the pasture weed Mother of Millions, Bryophyllum delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) 1900. To evaluate the potential risk by these populations to plants of economic significance, under laboratory conditions, whether S. aurantii collected from Mother of Millions in Queensland can survive, reproduce and maintain populations over multiple generations on non-target hosts was tested. That this thrips can form self-sustaining populations on mango, grape, chilli, pea, green bean and blueberry was showed. Extended adult lifespan and some juvenile production were found on lemon and orange, but populations did not persist on these hosts. Furthermore, female thrips accept mango and grape for oviposition as readily as Mother of Millions. This degree of polyphagy under laboratory conditions suggests that caution is needed before promoting this thrips as a biocontrol agent against the pasture weed.

Procontarinia robusta Li, Bu & Zhang (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) induces distinctive brown conical galls on the upper side of mango leaves. Here, we describe the larva and pupa and illustrate the gall of P. robusta collected at type locality in China and use gall morphology to identify galls reported previously from India and Indonesia. Analyses of the cytochrome oxidase unit I mitochondrial gene segment showed significant differences between P. robusta and two other pests of mango, P. mangicola (Shi) and P. pustulata Kolesik, and confirmed the identification of P. robusta specimens from East Timor. A summary of the biology of P. robusta is provided.

Dasineura gannoni Kolesik sp. nov. is the first gall midge species known to feed on plants from the Hakea-Grevillea generic alliance. D. gannoni induces galls on swamp-loving Hakea microcarpa R. Br. and H. nodosa R. Br., flowering plant shrubs naturally occurring in south-east mainland Australia and Tasmania. The gall is a conspicuous red-coloured, multi-chambered, leaf swelling containing one, occasionally two, red larvae in each chamber. Pupation takes place in the soil. The new species was originally identified on H. microcarpa near Thredbo River in New South Wales. Later examination of herbarium vouchers found presence of galls of the new species on further specimens of H. microcarpa and another swamp-loving species H. nodosa. The geographical range of the new species extends over much of the combined distribution area of the two host plants on mainland Australia from far south-east Queensland through east New South Wales to Victoria and south-east South Australia.

Marginitermes absitus n. sp., discovered at Cape York and Cape Arnhem in northern Australia, is described from the imago and soldier castes. This termite species is larger than both of the known congeners, M. hubbardi and M. cactiphagus, from the south-western Nearctic and Central America, respectively. The geographical range and isolation of M. absitus represents one of the most disjunct and isolated distributions for any termite genus worldwide. Based on fossil records and tectonic history, the Australian Kalotermitidae, including M. absitus, arrived on the continent by transoceanic rafting during the Tertiary.

Scelio fulgidus (Crawford) is a widely distributed endoparasitoid in the eggs of the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker), that can exert considerable influence on locust population dynamics. The present study quantifies S. fulgidus longevity from different seasonal histories at five day/night temperature regimes in the laboratory. Longevity was sensitive to temperature, and means ranged from 5 days to 28 days in males and from 10 days to 33 days in females at 35/20°C and at 15/0°C (day/night), respectively. There was no significant difference in the longevity of S. fulgidus sampled from different seasonal populations, or those from host diapause eggs exposed to 15°C in soil for 100 days before hatching. These data report the average longevity of S. fulgidus at different day/night temperature regimes and considerably increase the previously reported individual maximum longevity for the species. The effects of temperature on wasp longevity may have important host–parasitoid implications at different times of the year.

Diets for the mass rearing of tephritid fruit flies have traditionally been based on bulking agents, such as lucerne, bran or carrot, which make up the majority of the larval medium. To overcome storage, handling and waste challenges of such ‘solid’ diets, liquid diets have been developed for some species. In liquid diets, reusable inert substrates, such as synthetic sponge, replace bulking agents to support the developing larvae. As a step towards increased production efficiency and quality, this study investigated the efficacy of three liquid diets and four solid diets for mass rearing of Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (‘Q-fly’). Under similar egg/diet density, diets were assessed in terms of pupal yield, larval duration, pupal weight, sex ratio, % adult emergence, % fliers, rate of fliers, egg/female/day, egging latency, and % egg hatch in both parental and F₁ generation. The best liquid diet showed some promise as an alternative to conventional solid diets. Comparing Q-fly reared on the best liquid diet with those reared on lucerne diet revealed mean pupal yield of 1636 ± 106.9 vs. 658 ± 16.2, pupal recovery of 21 ± 0.0% vs. 10 ± 0.0%, egg/female/day of 53 ± 3.8 vs. 30 ± 2.4, parental egg hatch of 85 ± 0.9% vs. 70 ± 1.6% and F₁ egg hatch of 87 ± 0.9% vs. 74 ± 1.4%. Liquid diets and their associated rearing systems show potential as efficient, reliable and economical replacements for the current solid diets.

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), western flower thrips (WFT), is a major worldwide pest of vegetables and ornamental crops. The biology of WFT was examined on gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses in relation to plant stage (flowering and non-flowering), pupation site, soil moisture and plant parts often inhabited by adult and immature thrips. Four foliage thrips predators (Transeius montdorensis (Schicha), Orius armatus (Gross), Mallada signata (Schneider) and Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans)) and three soil predators (Geolaelaps aculeifer (Canestrini), Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) and Dalotia coriaria (Kraatz)) were studied to determine their ability to reduce the numbers of WFT on gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses. There was no difference in the number of adults that emerged from growing media of high or low moisture content on any host plant. There were also no differences in the total numbers of WFT recaptured from flowering gerberas, chrysanthemums or roses. However, about seven times the number of thrips were collected from flowering chrysanthemums compared with non-flowering chrysanthemums, indicating that the flowering plants were more suitable hosts. Of all thrips recollected, the greatest percentage was immature (larval and pupal) thrips (70%, 71% and 43%) on the flowers for gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses, respectively. The mean percentage of thrips that emerged as adults from the soil was very low (5.3 ± 1.2, 8.5 ± 2.9, 20.5 ± 9.1 and 28.2 ± 5.6%) on gerberas, flowering and non-flowering chrysanthemums, and roses, respectively. Simultaneous release of foliage and soil predators did not reduce the number of thrips beyond that caused by foliage predators alone. Of the foliage predators, T. montdorensis, O. armatus and N. cucumeris performed best, significantly reducing the numbers of adult and immature thrips on flowers and foliage by 30–99%. Further research is required to determine the most cost-effective rates of release in cut flower crops.

The black parlatoria scale, Parlatoria ziziphi, is considered to be absent from Australia despite previous reports of its presence in the Darwin area of the Northern Territory in 1914 and 1915. A search of the National Australian Plant Pest Database revealed the existence of only five samples of this species from Australia, three samples from Darwin and two further collections from interceptions likely at the international quarantine border in Sydney. Intensive plant pest surveillance activities over the past 20 years, which included specific surveys for P. ziziphi, have not detected this pest species in the Darwin area or any other region of Australia. It is probable that the scale was incidentally eliminated from the country during an eradication program for citrus canker that, between 1916 and 1922, removed all known citrus plants in the Northern Territory above latitude 19°S.

A survey of entomologists was conducted to estimate the value of present and potential losses from invertebrate pests for the six most important Australian grain crops: wheat, barley, oats, canola, lupins and grain sorghum. The survey provided data on the incidence and severity of 29 invertebrate pest groups across the six crops. These data were combined with crop production data to estimate the value of the losses in the northern, southern and western production regions of Australia. Aggregated across the six major Australian grain crops, the estimated present annual loss because of invertebrate pests totalled $359.8 million. The relative importance of invertebrate pests varied between regions. Nationally, the five most important invertebrate pests based on estimated present losses aggregated across the six crops were redlegged earth mite ($44.7 million), budworms ($36.3 million), blue oat mite ($35.5 million), lucerne flea ($28.4 million) and locusts ($28.4 million). Present cultural and pesticide controls of invertebrate pests effectively reduced losses, but pest management remained very dependent on pesticides. Nationally, pesticide treatment costs aggregated across all six crops totalled $159.1 million. Based on pesticide treatment costs, the three most costly invertebrate pests were various species of aphids ($28.0 million), redlegged earth mite ($20.5 million) and various species of budworms ($16.9 million). Results from this study will inform future investment decisions related to invertebrate pests.

Estimating the timescale of evolution forms an important component of many molecular studies of insects. By obtaining date estimates for significant evolutionary events, we can gain a better understanding of biological processes such as diversification and adaptation. Evolutionary timescales can be estimated from genetic sequence data using the molecular clock, which was proposed five decades ago and has subsequently undergone considerable development. In this article, we provide a summary of the theoretical basis of the molecular clock, including its relationship to the neutral and nearly neutral theories of molecular evolution. We explain how the clock can be used to estimate evolutionary timescales from DNA and protein sequence data. Finally, we describe some of the key challenges facing users of the molecular clock in studies of insects, including the problems of rate variation among lineages and over time.

Coloured pan trapping is a simple and efficient method for collecting flying insects, yet there is still discussion over the most effective bowl colour to use for particular target groups (e.g. pollinator insects). The success of particular colours can vary across bioregions and habitats. Most published pan trap studies have been conducted in the northern hemisphere, and very few investigated the effects of habitat on pan trap catches. Our study is one of the first to (1) sample for potential pollinators in Australian mallee vegetation and almond orchards and (2) investigate whether habitat interacts with trap colour to influence pan trap catches. We sampled Hymenoptera and Diptera using yellow, white and blue pan traps in native mallee vegetation and two types of managed almond orchards (monoculture and plant-diverse) in the Murray Mallee bioregion of north-western Victoria, Australia. Yellow traps caught the most insects across all habitats, although catches in each colour trap varied with habitat. For all insect groups combined, blue traps caught more individuals in mallee habitats than in almond orchards. For native hymenopterans, yellow traps caught more individuals in plant-diverse orchards than in native sites, while blue traps caught more individuals in native sites. Our results highlight the importance of considering the habitat of individual pan trapping surveys, as no one trap colour is likely to be suitable for trapping target insects across all habitats.

Springtails are one of the most abundant groups of arthropods inhabiting soil and litter substrates within rainforest ecosystems, making significant contributions to ecological processes such as decomposition. The aim of this study is to assess the potential sensitivity of springtail assemblages to climate change by presenting some of the first data on the elevation stratification of springtail assemblages in subtropical rainforest. A standardised sampling protocol was used to compare the assemblages of families and species of springtails living within leaf-litter at three elevations in continuous rainforest in south-east Queensland, Australia. Leaf-litter was collected and springtails extracted from four replicate plots at approximately 700, 900 and 1100 m a.s.l. on two sampling occasions (January 2008 and December 2008). Environment variables (elevation of plots, tree species richness, composition and basal area, soil temperature and moisture and a range of physical and chemical properties of the soil) that may correlate with springtail distributions were incorporated into the analyses.

Springtail assemblages showed clear elevation patterns, despite some differences between the two sampling occasions. Springtail assemblages characteristic of different elevations particularly when examined at a finer taxonomic resolution (species compared with family-level identification) were identified. Plot elevation (m a.s.l.) correlated most strongly with patterns in springtail species assemblages, but was also highly correlated with several other environmental factors. The results indicate that springtails, as a group, respond strongly to the physico-chemical and/or biological changes that occur with increasing elevation, even over a relatively small elevation range, demonstrating that they have potential as monitoring targets as forests experience climate change.

All known species of Fergusonina flies (Fergusoninidae) participate in an obligate mutualism with Fergusobia nematodes (Neotylenchidae). From dissections, it is believed that all female third-instar larvae, pupae and adult female flies carry nematodes internally, while male adults and larvae do not. This observation of sex-limited association was tested using a molecular diagnostic approach. Nematode-specific primers were used for polymerase chain reaction amplification of a portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene in order to screen DNA extractions from flies for the presence of nematode DNA. Consistent with evidence from dissections, nearly all extractions from adult female flies were positive for nematode DNA, while all DNA extractions from adult male flies were negative. Nearly half of late-instar larvae screened showed evidence of nematode DNA, consistent with the hypothesis that nematodes are only present within females. This paper is the first to use a molecular method to confirm this phenomenon within the Fergusonina/Fergusobia system.

Based on morphology we review the cave-dwelling species of the pseudoscorpion genus Pseudotyrannochthonius (family Pseudotyrannochthoniidae) from mainland Australia and provide a brief account of their distribution and ecomorphology. Pseudotyrannochthonius eberhardi sp. n. is described from the Stockyard Creek karst in northern New South Wales and P. jonesi (Chamberlin 1962) is redescribed and illustrated from the Jenolan karst in Central New South Wales based on females. Both species show morphological features reminiscent of troglomorphism and appear to be short-range endemics that are restricted to their respective karsts. All other species previously recorded from subterranean habitats in mainland Australia are facultative cave dwellers that do not show major morphological adaptations towards life underground.

The first species of the goblin spider genus Camptoscaphiella Caporiacco from New Caledonia are recorded and described. C. monteithi new species was found on the summit of Mt Rembai, and C. potteri new species was found on Mt Mandjélia, suggesting that they are high-altitude specialists.

Mating behaviour in the crusader bug, Mictis profana (Heteroptera: Miridae) is described. Using scan samples of marked individuals in outdoor enclosures, it is shown that larger males secure more matings than do small males. From videotaped recordings of captive individuals, a series of stereotyped male courtship behaviours are documented, which appear to include the use of a putative weapon – the median abdominal tubercle – in tactile stimulation of the female. The fighting behaviour of this species based on videotaped observations of male–male combat over access to females was also described.

The potential impact of varroa (Varroa destructor, Anderson & Trueman) on Australian beekeeping and agriculture depends in part on the levels of resistance to this parasite expressed by Australian commercial honeybees (Apis mellifera). The responses of seven lines of Australian honeybees to V. destructor were compared with the responses of a stock of Italian honeybees from the United States known for its susceptibility to V. destructor and two stocks known for their resistance to V. destructor, Russian honeybees (RHB) and a stock expressing the varroa sensitive hygiene trait (VSH). The experiment began in May with uniform colonies having uniform infestation of V. destructor. V. destructor infestations measured as the percentage of adult bees infested in the Australian lines and the Italian stock rose from less than 10% in August to over 25% in October. From August to November, 44% of both the Australian and Italian colonies died while strongly exhibiting symptoms of parasitic mite syndrome. In contrast, RHB and VSH colonies displayed comparative resistance to V. destructor. Their infestation rates rose from about 5% in August to 10% (RHB) and 14% (VSH) in October. Likely, some of this increase resulted from invasion pressure by mites from the dying Australian and Italian colonies. During the August to November period, 4.4% of the RHB and 14.3% of the VSH colonies died. In comparisons of the seven Australian lines, only nonsignificant and trivial differences were found for infestation and mortality rates. All Australian lines were highly susceptible to V. destructor. Additionally, evaluations of rates of Nosema ceranae infections were made throughout the course of the experiment. Although high levels of infection were found across all stocks and lines, no stock or line exhibited an adverse effect from N. ceranae infection.

Trapping of Old World screw-worm fly, Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Calliphoridae), using a single sticky trap baited with swormlure was undertaken at 20 locations along the southern coastline of Papua New Guinea bordering the Torres Strait on two occasions in 1981. The traps were operated for 6.5 and 12.5 days, respectively, with total trap catches of 9 male and 95 female screw-worm fly. The mean daily trap catches were 0.23 and 0.30 C. bezziana flies for the two occasions despite nine of the trap locations failing to detect any screw-worm flies. The results of screw-worm fly trapping and/or sentinel cattle studies in several other locations in Papua New Guinea are also presented for comparison, with mean fly trap catches ranging from 0.04 to 0.23 and egg masses from 0.55 to 1.12 per sentinel per day. Comparisons with similar studies in Malaysia indicate that the C. bezziana populations along the Torres Strait border are relatively high with serious biosecurity implications for Australia.

One of the challenges in detecting a pest incursion is the selection of an appropriate sampling technique that is relatively easy to use and inexpensive. Five sampling techniques (sticky traps, water traps, sweep netting, vacuum sampling and direct searching) were used to detect the tomato potato psyllid (Bactericera cockerelli) in potato crops on the North Island of New Zealand. Sticky traps and water traps outperformed the other methods in detecting psyllids. There was weak evidence that water traps outperformed sticky traps, but this difference was minor. Sticky traps closer to the edge of a crop were more likely to catch more psyllids. The results suggest that surveillance for incursion by B. cockerelli into Australia using yellow sticky or water traps would be easier and more time-effective to implement than other methods and would provide a higher probability of detection if the psyllid was in fact present.

Cat's claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) L.G. Lohman (syn: Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) A.H. Gentry) (Bignoniaceae), a major environmental weed in Queensland and New South Wales, is a Weed of National Significance and an approved target for biological control. A leaf-mining jewel beetle, Hylaeogena jureceki Obenberger (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), first collected in 2002 from D. unguis-cati in Brazil and Argentina, was imported from South Africa into a quarantine facility in Brisbane in 2009 for host-specificity testing. H. jureceki adults chew holes in leaves and lay eggs on leaf margins and the emerging larvae mine within the leaves of D. unguis-cati. The generation time (egg to adult) of H. jureceki under quarantine conditions was 55.4 ± 0.2 days. Host-specificity trials conducted in Australia on 38 plant species from 11 families supplement and support South African studies which indicated that H. jureceki is highly host-specific and does not pose a risk to any non-target plant species in Australia. In no-choice tests, adults survived significantly longer (>32 weeks) on D. unguis-cati than on non-target test plant species (<3 weeks). Oviposition occurred on D. unguis-cati and one non-target test plant species, Citharexylum spinosum (Verbenaceae), but no larval development occurred on the latter species. In choice tests involving D. unguis-cati, C. spinosum and Avicennia marina (Avicenniaceae), feeding and oviposition were evident only on D. unguis-cati. The insect was approved for field release in Australia in May 2012.