This study explored segregation and sectarianism among children in integrated and non-integrated Northern Irish schools. Results revealed a substantial relationship between 2 types of intergroup contact—cross-group friendship and extended contact—and lower levels of prejudice. While cross-group friendships were associated with more positive intergroup relations via the mediating mechanisms of self-disclosure and empathy with the out-group, extended contact worked by eliciting positive perceived peer norms toward the out-group. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for intergroup relations among children in conflict societies.
The relationship between contact and prejudice against Indigenous Australians and refugees was explored. Using path analysis, increased quality of contact significantly decreased prejudice toward Indigenous Australians, both directly and indirectly through intergroup anxiety; while increased quantity of contact reduced prejudice via a direct pathway. Decreased levels of prejudice toward Indigenous Australians led to increases in support for legislation, which led to increases in willingness to act. Similar results were found for the refugee analysis, except that there was no relationship between quantity of contact and other variables. Qualitative analyses revealed the importance of context, the nature of experience and indirect experience, and societal factors. Our results indicate the power of contact, as well as other structural, interpersonal, and personal factors.
Despite growing water scarcity, communities in many parts of the developed world often reject technically and economically sound options for water augmentation. This paper reports findings from a study investigating risk perceptions associated with a proposed managed aquifer recharge scheme in Australia. Q Methodology was used to compare decision-making frameworks of lay community and “technical expert” participants. Technical expert participants were also asked to approximate the decision-making framework of a “typical” community member. The emerging contrasts between lay community frameworks and those approximated by technical experts suggest that there are prevailing yet errant assumptions about lay community attitudes toward new technologies. The findings challenge the characterization of the lay community and technical experts as being in entrenched opposition with one another.
Weight prejudice and discrimination were examined in students, using the motivation and opportunity as determinants (MODE) model. The personalized Implicit Association Test (pIAT) and Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions (MCPR) scale were used to predict subsequent expressed and actual behavior, measured by an election task and a lost e-mail task. Thematic analysis of qualitative responses was conducted to determine reasons participants discriminated against obesity. The MODE model did not predict the prejudice–behavior relationship; however, expressed weight prejudice and discrimination were highly prevalent. Of the participants, 21.2% explicitly stated that candidates' weight influenced their voting behavior. The MODE model was concluded to be an inappropriate model for weight prejudice. Implications for future research are discussed.
Presumptions of guilt could bias criminal investigators' interviews of suspects, reducing recall of exculpatory alibi information, and the label “alibi” could be enough to create a presumption of guilt. Participants (n = 285) viewed a videotaped narrative account; some participants knew prior to viewing that the account was an alibi whereas others discovered this after viewing. Also, some participants were given an expectation that the alibi provider was guilty or innocent. Results indicated participants with a presumption of guilt before viewing the alibi recalled less alibi-relevant information, found the alibi less believable, and viewed the alibi provider more negatively than did participants without such an expectation, and that a label of “alibi” was not enough to create a presumption of guilt.
In Study 1, a sample of tennis players ranked at the national level (n = 173) completed a French version of the Situational Motivation Scale the day before a tennis competition. Results revealed the presence of a three-cluster solution. Differences among clusters on subsequent sport performance were significant. Specifically, athletes with the least self-determined motivational profile obtained the lowest levels of performance. Study 2 (n = 319) replicated the findings of Study 1 with a larger sample of national level tennis players. Overall, these results suggest that it is useful to analyze individuals' situational motivational profiles using a cluster analysis to understand the complex link between motivation and performance.
The study of skin color and its relationship to body (dis)satisfaction and self-esteem is critical to expanding upon the research that explores the intersection between body image and the sociocultural experience of women of the African diaspora. To this end, the relationships between skin color satisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem were examined in a sample of 328 women of African descent. Results revealed a significant effect for ethnicity and employment status on body dissatisfaction, skin color satisfaction, and self-esteem. Follow-up analyses revealed that Afro-Caribbean women were the most satisfied with their body shape, biracial women were most satisfied with their skin color, and women who self-identified as professionals had the highest self-esteem. Implications for the findings are discussed.
Two studies examined the relationship between social status and obesity stereotypes. In Study 1, obese individuals were seen as having lower status than non-obese individuals, and status ratings were positively correlated with common obesity stereotypes. In Study 2, targets were depicted as overweight or lean, and as having a high-status or low-status job. High-status heavy targets were rated as less lazy and more competent than were their low-status counterparts, but status did not impact ratings of sloppiness or warmth. The findings indicate that obesity can serve as a status cue. Furthermore, the findings provide preliminary evidence that status is related to the attribution of certain stereotypes to obese individuals, while also highlighting the multifaceted nature of obesity stereotypes.
Research on human and civil rights has only rarely addressed people's attitudes toward disability rights in the context of American society. This study was designed to gain a better understanding of why certain individuals might oppose expanded rights for people who have disabilities. Pearson's correlations revealed that individuals high on social dominance orientation (SDO) and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) were more likely to reject rights for persons with intellectual and physical disabilities than individuals scoring lower on these factors. Structural equation analyses indicated that both SDO and RWA are directly implicated in opposition to expanded rights for these groups. Moreover, the effects of SDO on rights attitudes appear to be mediated through internal motivation to respond without prejudice.
The interplay of nationalistic threat perceptions, dehumanizing beliefs and intergroup emotions, and anti-immigrant sentiment is analyzed in a cross-national context with Australian (N = 124) and Canadian (N = 126) samples. National identification was linked to negative attitudes toward immigrants indirectly, via perceptions of immigrants as being in threatening zero-sum relationships with citizens. In turn, perceived zero-sum threat was associated with dehumanizing beliefs and emotions about immigrants. Significant baseline differences in hostility were observed across the samples, but the relationships among the variables were not moderated by participants' nationality. The study contributes to the literature examining how negative emotions and attitudes may serve to legitimize intergroup competition.
From an extended contact hypothesis (ECH) framework, mass-media portrayals of interracial relationships may encourage positive attitudes toward such relationships. Caucasian participants (N = 218) indicated examples of media portrayals of Black–White interracial relationships, attitudes toward Blacks, attitudes toward interracial relationships, degree of identification with Whites, and the degree to which Blacks are included in self-representations. Supporting our hypotheses, extended contact with Black–White relationships via media portrayals was associated with more positive attitudes toward Blacks and interracial relationships. These relationships were mediated by the degree to which Blacks are included in self-representations. This study furthers understanding of ECH by including representations of dyadic relationships and suggests an avenue for the creation of interventions for improving attitudes toward interracial relationships.
Two Internet experiments investigated how the race/ethnicity and gender of prospective tenants impacted landlord response. Among males, Asian American tenants fared best, receiving 45.2% positive responses. Hispanic and White tenants received a similar number of positive responses (34.7% and 34.0%, respectively), while the African American tenant received the fewest (16.0%). In general, female prospective tenants received more positive responses than did male prospective tenants (40.8% vs. 27.1%); among females, White and Asian American women received more positive responses (67.3% and 60.8%, respectively) than did Hispanic (43.1%) and African American (41.2%) women. The experiments indicated that prospective tenants were more likely to receive positive responses when their race matched that of the neighborhood in which the apartment is located.
Cultural mistrust is a protective mechanism employed by minority group members when risk of victimization from majority group members is high. In Northern Ireland, depending on the context, both Catholics and Protestants may perceive themselves at risk of discrimination, and use similar protective strategies. This study examined the appropriateness of the Cultural Mistrust Inventory in assessing mistrust among members of different religious groups within Northern Ireland. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses resulted in an 11-item, 3-factor measure of religious mistrust. Mistrust appears to be experienced by both Catholics and Protestants, regardless of group status; with males reporting significantly higher levels of mistrust of the “other” group. Higher levels of mistrust were associated with higher psychological distress.
Three studies tested the interaction of the prototype effect, the notion that ambiguous behavior is more likely to be perceived as discriminatory when the executor is prototypical; and the need for cognitive closure, the tendency to seize on an answer. Study 1 provided bolstering evidence of the prototype effect's moderation by need for cognitive closure. Ambiguously sexist behavior enacted by a prototypical (male) executor was perceived as more discriminatory than the same behavior exhibited by a nonprototypical (female) executor, and this effect was exacerbated by higher trait levels of need for cognitive closure. In Studies 2 and 3, via situational induction, prototype reliance again was exacerbated, such that it overrode the influence of individual-difference levels of need for cognitive closure.
Policies atoning for past wrongs against minority groups are often contested within the majority. During the year after the apology to the Indigenous Australian Stolen Generations, predictors of non-Indigenous (majority) collective action intentions focusing on support or opposition to reform reconciliation policies (Study 1, N = 206) and compensation to the Stolen Generations (Study 2, N = 215; Study 3, N = 298) were examined. Action was analyzed as a function of national identity, opinion-based group identity, group-based guilt, political orientation, and collective efficacy. Opinion-based group identification was an independent predictor of action for all groups except for anti-compensation, where efficacy strongly predicted action. Findings highlight opinion-based groups' role in capturing the fault lines of disagreement within majority groups.
This research examines the role of aspirations for cooperative relations between people with mental disorders and other community members in influencing commitment to stigma-reducing practices and promoting positive social change. Two studies demonstrated that a measure of aspirations for a cooperative community is distinct from social and community identification measures and strongly predicts positive beliefs and behavioral intentions. Findings support the proposal that these aspirations reflect a shared ideology for members of an opinion-based group that support mental health advocacy. The findings provide evidence that the aspirations construct adds to knowledge about collective identities and offers a useful tool for designing stigma reduction and social-change strategies for the benefit of people with mental disorders.
Possible factors in prejudice toward Muslims and those perceived to be Muslims were investigated. We specifically investigated cues of foreignness that may communicate threat. Using a 2 (Complexion: dark vs. light) × 2 (Dress: Middle Eastern vs. Western) × 2 (Name: Allen vs. Mohammed) between-subjects design, we expected cues of foreignness (dress and name) to have a greater impact on perceptions of targets than phenotype (complexion). Participants reviewed portraits of young men varying in the manipulated characteristics and gave their impressions. Generally, complexion did not affect perceptions, but portraits in Middle Eastern dress were rated less positively. There was a name by dress interaction in which Allen in Western dress was rated least negatively. Implications for future research are discussed.
The present research examined the effects of one's national sports team defeats in international competitions on adolescents' out-group attitudes and the moderation of these effects by in-group identification. We conducted two longitudinal studies surveying German adolescents (Soccer World Championship 2006 and European Championship 2008). Both studies showed deterioration in adolescents' evaluations of people from the countries whose soccer teams defeated the German team (Italy and Spain). There was no generalization to other national groups. The deterioration in out-group evaluations was shown to be more pronounced for adolescents reporting a high in-group identification. The results are discussed in terms of macro-societal effects on adolescents' attitude development and the function that intergroup bias serves for social identity.
Does sleepiness make one more likely to engage in stereotyping? Are people more likely to be prejudiced because of a poor night of sleep? Borrowing from ego depletion theory and research on self-control and prejudice, the present work investigates these questions. We suggest that sleep is a diminishable resource that fuels self-control and is, therefore, necessary for inhibiting prejudice. A series of 3 studies show that sleep did influence prejudice. Furthermore, we found that the relationship between sleep and prejudice was marginally moderated by negative implicit associations, such that this relationship primarily held true for individuals who have high negative implicit associations. These results highlight the critical role that sleep plays in suppressing prejudice.
This cross-sectional study examined (a) the impact of in-group (own-group conformity pressure) and out-group (perceived discrimination, stereotype confirmation concern) race-related stressors; (b) the direct effect of 2 in-group- (private regard, centrality) and 1 out-group-oriented (public regard) racial identity factors; and (c) the potential protective role of these identity factors on the impact of stressors on the anxiety of Asian Pacific Islander American (API) college students attending a racially diverse university. As predicted, positive feelings toward one's own racial group (i.e., private regard) had a significant negative relationship with anxiety. Private regard protected APIs from own-group conformity pressures and stereotype confirmation concerns. Findings address the diverse university context that may create acculturative pressures or stereotype confirmation concern conditions.
Affirmative action continues to be one of the most contentious policies in the U.S. The current study examined the effect of hiring policy framing on the evaluation of African American applicants. Participants (N = 204) reviewed the résumé of an African American man either hired under an affirmative-action or a diversity-initiative frame. Results indicated that the applicant was evaluated as more competent under the diversity-initiative frame than the affirmative-action frame. This was especially true for White and conservative raters. The findings suggest that shifting to an emphasis on diversity instead of affirmative action may decrease negative attitudes toward affirmative-action beneficiaries.
Two studies examined the influence of an anti-discrimination norm on Swiss nationals' discrimination against foreigners as a function of initial attitude (pro-foreigner vs. anti-foreigner) and in-group threat (i.e., whether or not foreigners are perceived as taking nationals' jobs). Results showed that anti-foreigners decreased their level of discrimination (i.e., a conformity effect) when threat was low, but did not change (Study 1) or increased discrimination (i.e., a counter-conformity effect) when threat was high (Study 2). No significant effects were observed for pro-foreigners. It is argued that conformity to anti-discrimination norms increases as the individual–norm discrepancy increases, insofar as the social context provides legitimacy to this norm (i.e., low in-group threat conditions).
The current studies explore situational and individual factors affecting non-target perceivers' reactions and behavior following a racist comment, focusing on verbal confronting behavior. Two studies were conducted in which participants reported about recent situations in which they witnessed a racist comment that was not directed specifically at their own racial group. Results indicated that only one third of participants directly confronted the commenter. Strength of verbal confrontation was predicted by affective reactions and judgments of the offensiveness of the prejudicial comment. Analyses also revealed that strength of confrontation for females was predicted by the experience of negative emotions, but that males confronted more with stronger ratings of the offensiveness of the racist remarks. Implications for theory and policy are discussed.
The present studies examine how White ancestry influences perceivers' minority categorization of Black/White biracial individuals, as well as the implications of minority categorization for distribution of minority resources and stereotype use. Study 1 suggests that people are less likely to categorize those of Black/White biracial descent as minority and thus are less likely to view them as appropriate recipients of affirmative action than those of Black monoracial or Black/Native American descent. Study 2 tests a model in which Black/White biracial individuals with a greater amount of White ancestry are perceived as experiencing less discrimination and are less likely to be categorized as minority; therefore, they are judged as less appropriate for minority resources.
We investigated whether imagining contact with an out-group member would change behavioral tendencies toward the out-group. In Experiment 1, British high school students who imagined talking to an asylum seeker reported a stronger tendency to approach asylum seekers than did participants in a control condition. Path analysis revealed this relationship was mediated by out-group trust and, marginally, by out-group attitude. In Experiment 2, straight undergraduates who imagined an interaction with a gay individual reported a stronger tendency to approach, and a weaker tendency to avoid, gay people. Path analyses showed that these relationships were mediated by out-group trust, out-group attitude, and less intergroup anxiety. These findings highlight the potential practical importance of imagined contact and important mediators of its effects.
Since its conceptualization, the construct of homophobia has been the subject of many speculations about its specificity, reach, and possibility of empirical assessment. Several instruments have been created aiming to measure the prejudice against homosexuals. Peer-reviewed articles of studies using measures to assess homophobia and related constructs were systematically reviewed in 4 databases (Medline, PsycINFO, ERIC, JSTOR). The articles were classified as they displayed evidence of the instrument's validity, reliability, or both. Finally, the instruments were rated according to that evidence. Out of 1076 results, 115 studies between 1993 and 2010 were identified as relevant. Those studies used 47 different instruments. This review focused in 5 instruments that concentrated the majority of the citations. Psychometric properties were acceptable.
This study investigated causal attributions and attitudes toward a hypothetical lung cancer patient. Participants included 147 undergraduate students who read 1 of 3 vignettes about a man recently diagnosed with lung cancer. The vignettes were identical except for the causal description of the patient's lung cancer (genetic, smoking, or combined). Compared with the other 2 conditions, participants in the genetic condition believed the hypothetical patient had less control and less responsibility for his illness; they also noted more pity and less anger. There were no significant differences in these variables between the smoking and combined conditions. Information about genetic information appears to trigger more positive perceptions of lung cancer patients, but only in the absence of smoking histories.
Risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is perceived to be less when the potential partner is sexually appealing. Is it possible that cleanliness of the room in which intercourse takes place also affects perceived risk for STIs? In scenario studies, participants were asked to imagine having had unsafe sex with a person they just met in that person's apartment (Study 1) or in a hotel room (Study 2) and that the next day they wake up in a room that is either quite dirty or very clean. Participants in the dirty room condition rated their susceptibility to STI higher, and had lower intentions to act the same way again. Results are discussed in terms of deductive processes, emotions, and magical contagion.
This study examined the effects of 4 types of social support and sense of community belongingness on depression severity and duration in Canadian men and women. Using the concept of social capital, it is argued that sense of community belongingness is a distal social variable, distinct from proximal social factors (e.g., types of social support). Data associated with 6,112 respondents were extracted from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS; Statistics Canada, 2002) and analyzed. Regardless of gender, higher levels of positive social interaction, and a stronger sense of community belongingness predicted less severity and shorter duration. However, very intriguing gender differences also emerged, which are discussed with reference to the reciprocity norm, conservation of resources theory, and social capital.
The current study examined the extent to which H1N1 was stigmatized at the height of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic in the U.S. and explored the role that H1N1 stigma played in people's desire for physical distance from others with H1N1. H1N1 was the most stigmatized disease, with participants endorsing greater prejudice toward people with H1N1 than people with cancer or HIV/AIDS. Further, H1N1 stigma partially mediated the relationship between participants' perceptions that H1N1 was threatening and their desire for physical distance from people with H1N1. Therefore, H1N1 stigma played a role in, but was not entirely responsible for, the relationship between perceptions that H1N1 was threatening and the desire for distance from others with H1N1.
A scale measuring attitudes toward seeking medical help was devised and pretested with college students. The scale was internally consistent and had evident factorial and congruent validity. In a second sample, both the revised scale and its primary attitudinal component—an action–intention subscale—had strong test–retest reliability and correlation with reported medical appointments and contacts assessed approximately 2 months later. In a sample of Hartford, CT residents, the scale's factorial structure was remarkably similar to that of the students. Help-seeking attitudes differentiated between people who had been treated for a medical crisis and those who had not; those with and without health insurance; and, of the insured, those who considered their coverage adequate and those who did not.
This study was carried out among university undergraduates in Cape Town, South Africa. Structural equation models were tested with Mplus to predict intentions to use condoms and actual (subsequent) condom use. Theory of planned behavior (TPB) predictors (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control) explained 43% of the variance of intention to use condoms among the sexually active sample, and 31% among the sexually inactive. In a separate analysis—which also included intentions and previous condom use as predictors—57% of subsequent condom use among the sexually active students was explained. Moreover, age, religiosity, and relationship status were associated with condom use. Our findings provide support for the applicability and suitability of the TPB in South African student populations.
Respondents (N = 224) read 1 of 4 scenarios: a heavy smoker, a moderate smoker, an occasional smoker, or a nonsmoker diagnosed with lung cancer. Results showed that smokers with lung cancer received more blame than did nonsmokers. Nonsmokers assigned more blame to tobacco companies and cigarette advertising and made more negative attributions about lung cancer victims. Respondents high in smoking-cessation efficacy assigned more blame and negative attributions to lung cancer victims. This study suggests that lung cancer is stigmatized because of the widely held belief that it is preventable. Interventions must encourage smokers to be vigilant about their lung health, to know the symptoms of lung cancer, and to see their doctor immediately if they experience lung problems.
This study examined condom use during first sexual intercourse, with a large sample of university students. Differences in condom use based on individual, family, relational, and situational variables were considered; in addition to the year when sexual intercourse occurred. A steady increase in condom use was found from the 1980s to the present time. Among other factors found to be associated with the likelihood of condom use during first sexual intercourse were being older at first intercourse, having a higher family social class, having first sex in a serious and longer relationship (as compared to a casual or brief relationship), and not consuming alcohol. Some differences in predictors of condom use were found based on cohort and sex of respondent.
Using the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (HMIEM) and self-determination theory as theoretical frameworks, the purpose of the present study was to assess the role of motivation-related variables in the relationship between perceptions of social support and intentions to be physically active. Undergraduate students completed surveys assessing perceptions of social support, psychological needs satisfaction, self-determination, and future exercise intentions. Model fit with the data was examined and was considered acceptable, indicating that social support was positively related to the satisfaction of psychological needs, which, in turn, was related positively to self-determination and then to physical activity intentions.
There has been little experimental research examining characteristics that contribute to the stigmatization of individuals with sexually transmitted infections (STIs) other than HIV. We examined 3 illness characteristics (STI type, control over transmission, target gender) and 3 observer characteristics (sexual attitudes, sexual experience, observer gender) characteristics. Undergraduates (N = 207) read 1 of 8 vignettes and provided ratings of enacted stigma, felt stigma, and attributions of blame. As predicted, ratings of blame and stigmatization were significantly greater by individuals with more conservative attitudes and in the conditions in which the target had more behavioral control and contracted herpes. We found little evidence for a sexual double standard. Implications for the development and maintenance of illness-related stigmas are discussed.
According to rigorous guidelines of instrument development, a 17-item chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus-related stigma scale (HBV-SS) in college students, including 4 domains (labeling, stereotype, separating, discrimination), was developed with data from 717 college students in China. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of HBV-SS was .85. Four common factors were extracted in accordance with the conceptual model. Students with HBsAg positive/ever-positive (vs. negative), with HBsAg ever-positive (vs. never positive/did not know), and students who had any family member, friend, or acquaintance as a chronic carrier of HBV (vs. had not/did not know) had significantly lower scores. Research has shown that the scale is reliable, valid, and sensitive and is recommended for application of HBV-SS to assist public health practice.
This paper describes research on 2 normative concepts thought to impact health behaviors: injunctive and descriptive norms. The study tests whether the extent to which the same health behavior is enacted in an observable or non-observable setting will lead to variation in normative influence on parent intention. In online experiments conducted in Winter 2009, participants were randomized to a behavioral scenario in which the health behavior was described as occurring in an observable or non-observable setting. For sun-protection behaviors, observability primed the influence of descriptive norms on intention. For nutrition behaviors, observability primed the influence of injunctive norms on intention. Across both conditions, observability of the behavioral scenario increased the strength of the association between norms and intention.
Pandemics are socially threatening situations that rapidly spread across large regions. Thinking of contracting dangerous diseases can potentially evoke fear and death-related thoughts. The aim of the present work was to investigate how individuals respond to fear associated with contracting a pandemic disease (i.e., swine flu). In accordance with the mortality salience hypothesis of terror management theory (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986), we predicted that individuals concerned with contracting swine flu would demonstrate greater investment in cultural worldviews (i.e., patriotism) in response to death anxiety. The implications of these findings for understanding global issues in domains related to health and politics are discussed.
Although they can be prevented or reversed with proper oral hygiene, oral diseases are prevalent because oral self-care in the population is poor. Using structural equation modeling, we examined associations of theoretically guided psychosocial factors with oral health practices and dissatisfaction in young adults. Conscientiousness predicted lower dissatisfaction (β = −.35, p < .05); oral health self-efficacy predicted lower dissatisfaction (β = −.52, p < .05) and better oral health practices (β = .89, p < .05). Barriers to receiving dental care and knowledge about oral health did not predict either outcome. Findings suggest that by promoting task-specific oral health self-efficacy, healthcare providers may be able to improve patients' oral health satisfaction and increase compliance with recommendations for self-care.
The present study investigated the importance of the perceived injunctive norm to predict early adolescent cigarette smoking intentions. A total of 271 sixth graders completed a survey that included perceived prevalence of friend smoking (descriptive norm), perceptions of friends' disapproval of smoking (injunctive norm), and future smoking intentions. Participants also listed their five best friends, from which the actual injunctive norm was calculated. Results showed that smoking intentions were significantly correlated with the perceived injunctive norm but not with the actual injunctive norm. Second, the perceived injunctive norm predicted an additional 3.4% of variance in smoking intentions above and beyond the perceived descriptive norm. These results demonstrate the importance of the perceived injunctive norm in predicting early adolescent smoking intentions.
This paper presents a model of the effects of recovery level in terms of distributive, procedural, and interactional dimensions on consumer attitudes (satisfaction and trust) and their subsequent effects on behavioral intentions. Service medium (online and offline) is considered as a moderating variable in the perspective of psychological distance. Findings reveal that the effects of recovery levels on satisfaction and trust are greater in the offline medium than in the online medium. Moreover, in both low and high recovery situations, offline customers are more satisfied and have higher levels of trust than do online customers. As expected, satisfaction with service recovery plays a pivotal role in enhancing customer's trust and behavioral intentions.
This study draws on research to ascertain whether or not consumers with varying degrees of health consciousness will have different degrees of modern health worries (MHWs) and willingness to use functional foods. A total of 1,166 responses collected in Taiwan indicate there are 5 extracted MHW factors: household environment safety; medical safety; environmental pollution; food safety and health; and radiation pollution. The results reveal that the high health consciousness group had higher mean scores of the extracted MHW factors and greater willingness to use functional foods than did its low counterpart. However, the MHW pattern between the two groups was almost the same. A comparison of sociodemographic characteristics between the 2 health-consciousness groups is also included.
Positive attitudes toward organ donation often do not translate into behavior. The present study analyzes gender as a moderator of the attitude–behavior relationship. Due to helping behavior stereotypes, we expected women to show higher donation attitudes but a weaker attitude–behavior link than men. In Germany, 60 women and 61 men participated in a questionnaire survey. Indeed, women showed higher positive attitudes, empathy, and norms compared to men. While intention to card signing seemed unaffected by gender, the moderator effect was confirmed: The link between attitudes and intention to sign was stronger for men than women. In predicting behavior, the moderator effect showed a trend toward significance. The results provide a new understanding of the link between donation attitudes and behavior.
This research examines how time pressure influences bidding behavior in experiment auctions. The studies reported herein investigate how time pressure systematically impacts individual trading of an endowed object by looking at the disparity between buying and selling prices for that object. Study 1 tests whether the effect of time pressure eliminates the disparity between selling and buying prices. In Study 2, transaction demand is employed to see whether sellers and buyers are more sensitive to changes in the item (amount of work). In Study 3, sellers and buyers access information of differing valence in the task. In Study 4, the framing of the reference price is manipulated to moderate the endowment effect. These studies indicate that under time pressure, endowment bias is reduced and, more generally, elucidate the role of trading behavior in decision making.
One reason for consumer variety-seeking behavior is interpersonal motivation. Building on previous theories, we suggest that the different information types of interpersonal sources influence the variety-seeking behavior of individuals. Two laboratory experiments are conducted to examine the influence of the opinions of others on such behavior. The results support the author's contention that to derive more enjoyment from a shared product, an individual will make choices congruent with the opinions of others in online information. The managerial implications and study limitations are also discussed.
A web-based survey was used to assess the relationships of religious faith and frequency of church attendance with tipping under conditions of good and bad service. Results indicated that Jews and those with no religion tipped more than Christians and members of other religions, but that the vast majority of Christians tipped at or above the normative 15% of bill size. Worship frequency also significantly interacted with service quality such that the tips of those who frequently worship vary with service quality less than the tips of those who worship less frequently. The practical implications of these results for service workers and restaurants or other service businesses with a large religious clientele are discussed.
Because the literature suggests significant differences in the adoption rate of traditional innovations and those innovations classified as preventive, we examine the effectiveness of the constructs of the theory of planned behavior and social cognitive theory in predicting the adoption of preventive innovations. The current study synthesized 89 correlations from 63 studies (n = 31,158). The corrected mean correlation estimates were .51 for attitude, .52 for subjective norms, and .43 for planned behavioral control. The corrected mean correlation estimate for self-efficacy was .47. By understanding the predictor variables of the intent to adopt a preventive innovation, proponents of specific preventive innovations may be better equipped to select strategies that could accelerate the diffusion process.
Why do people consider cosmetic surgery? Based on the terror management theory, the present research identifies an existential motive: Through cosmetic surgery, people can symbolically defend against their death anxiety. A correlational study and an experiment showed that death terror, whether operationalized as individual differences in fear of death or experimentally manipulated mortality salience, was associated with stronger acceptance of cosmetic surgery. This association was absent among participants who did not consider physical appearance important, and weaker among those who were satisfied about their appearance. Also, this association was particularly strong among those with high explicit self-esteem. This concurs with the recent theoretical development about the role of self-esteem in symbolic defenses against death terror.
We investigated the differential relationships between abusive supervision and two emotional labor strategies used by subordinates (surface acting and deep acting). Furthermore, we examined whether subordinates' openness personality moderated the above relationships. Using the questionnaire survey method, we collected data from 210 employees in China. The results of hierarchical regression showed that abusive supervision related positively to surface acting (regulating facial expression) but negatively to deep acting (regulating inner feeling). Openness personality moderated the relationships between abusive supervision and the two emotional labor strategies, such that the relationships were stronger for employees with lower openness. Findings of our study contribute to the literature on workplace emotions and negative leadership.
Age and race differences in race stereotype awareness and endorsement were examined in 382 Black and White fourth, sixth, and eighth graders. Youths reported their own beliefs and their perceptions of adults' beliefs about racial differences in ability in two domains: academics and sports. Children's own endorsement of race stereotypes was highly correlated with their perceptions of adults' race stereotypes. Blacks reported stronger traditional sports stereotypes than Whites, and 4th- and 6th-grade Blacks reported roughly egalitarian academic stereotypes. At every grade level, Whites reported academic stereotypes that favored Whites, and 6th- and 8th-grade Whites reported sports stereotypes that favored Blacks. Results support the tenets of status theory and have implications for identity development and achievement motivation in adolescents.
Previous research in the area of price discounts has generated a rich, but diverse and mixed body of literature. This research examines the role of consumer's brand commitment and product category risk in influencing the nature as well as valence of the inferences generated by consumers in response to price discounts. Our results provide insights regarding how consumers' responses to competitor inducements vary depending upon their brand commitment for the incumbent brand and perceived risk. Furthermore, we show that higher commitment consumers could resist an inducement from a competitor when they are able to generate negative, marketer-related inferences. Our research suggests that consumers' inferences are critical than pure economic benefits in determining the effectiveness of discounts.
Research concerned with the experiences and motivations of people who participate in mountain climbing tends to overlook the varied nature of this pursuit, with comparisons between different types of climbing only occasionally receiving attention. Accordingly, the present study (N = 207) sought to examine representations of a broad range of different types of climbing. Of particular interest was the notion of risk. Principal component analyses for each type of climbing revealed “challenge,” “risk,” “enjoyment,” and “perspective and self-reflection” components. Attitudes toward participation were regressed on these components. Although the results revealed significant differences between the ratings of risk reported for the different types of climbing, risk had limited predictive impact on attitudes.
The effects of trash talk and competition outcome on self-efficacy and affect were examined in 40 Madden™ NFL 08 football video game players randomly assigned to two conditions: silence talk, where they played the first game in complete silence; and the second trash talking. Measures of self-efficacy, positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) were administered. Results revealed that players enforced to be silent in the first game instantaneously exhibited lower self-efficacy, lower PA, and higher NA than players permitted to talk in Game 1. However, players subsequently instructed to remain silent in the second game showed markedly decreased self-efficacy compared to players permitted to talk in Game 2. Results are interpreted in light of the social-cognitive-motivational theory.
Policy and legal decision making sometimes requires difficult assessments about how to translate the harm of sexual assault into dollar amounts. A web-based experiment (n = 743) was designed to test the psychology of taboo theory in this important context. The experiment included two unique features. First, subjects were randomly assigned to assess vignettes in either a dollar metric, a 7-point harm scale metric, or a years-in-jail metric. Second, subjects were given the opportunity, but not required, to provide a comment when making their assessment. Assignment to the dollar metric treatment group resulted in subjects freely expressing significantly more constitutive incommensurability comments. The effect was most pronounced when the level of sexual assault in the vignette was greatest.
With one in five individuals in the world living in China, there is an urgent need for HIV prevention and understanding HIV/AIDS stigma in China. This study applies an attributional analysis to Chinese students' responses to AIDS, examining effects of attributions of causal controllability for HIV infection on reactions to people living with HIV/AIDS. Students (n = 309) read one of two scenarios describing an AIDS patient and manipulating controllability of AIDS onset. Controllability of AIDS onset contributed to responsibility judgments, less positive affect, and lower desires to personally interact with the patient. Responsibility judgments predicted interaction wishes directly and indirectly through positive affect. Results provide support for Weiner's interpersonal attributional model. Implications for responses to AIDS in China are discussed.
In this article, we explore the role of two narrow personality traits, Sensation Seeking and Need for Structure, in soldiers’ situational perception in a military task-environment. In the first study, we assess the psychometric qualities of the personality inventories, Sensation Seeking Scale-V and Personal Need for Structure, in an Estonian military sample. In the second study, we explore how these traits are related to soldiers’ perception of complexity (predictability) and potential harms involved (riskiness; defined as situation structure) in two field exercise tasks. We found that both of the explored personality traits are significantly and inversely related with soldiers’ perception of situation structure in a military environment. Implications for personnel selection, training, and performance of military organizations are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to empirically investigate the relationship between psychological need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation as proposed by self-determination theory. Three competing hypotheses regarding the relations between need satisfaction and intrinsic motivation were tested: additive, synergistic, and balance. Two cross-sectional studies involving 1,254 employees from a broad range of Norwegian service organizations partly supported the first two hypotheses. Although the relationship between satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and relatedness with intrinsic motivation were significant, the one with satisfaction of the need for competence was not. Instead, competence was only related to intrinsic motivation when autonomy was high. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
This study examined the mechanisms of stigma toward individuals diagnosed with substance-related disorders. The applicability of a mental health model of stigma extended to substance dependence was tested. Undergraduates completed a modified version of stigma questionnaires previously used to measure mental health stigma models. Questionnaires captured familiarity, perceived dangerousness, fear, and desired social distance toward individuals dependent to alcohol, marijuana, and heroin. Path analysis assessed the direct and indirect effects within this theoretical model for each substance. For marijuana and heroin, path models suggested that familiarity indirectly predicted desired social distance through perceived dangerousness and fear. For alcohol, familiarity did not indirectly or directly predict desired social distance. Implications for applying mental health models to substance disorder stigma are discussed.
The stigmatization of smokers has become a social norm as new information about its health effects continues to be uncovered. This study investigated smokers in terms of their generosity as a means of stigma management. A field study was undertaken in which the experimenters frequented local establishments in the eight days prior to the 2010 Michigan antismoking legislation taking effect. Experimenters, sometimes while smoking and sometimes while not smoking, approached patrons of the establishments who were either smokers or nonsmokers and asked them for a dollar. Results indicated smokers were more likely to give a dollar than nonsmokers, regardless of whether or not the experimenters were smoking. This was interpreted as a strategy smokers use to combat social stigma.
Personal spending predictions are sometimes optimistically biased because predictors focus on their current savings goals. The present studies explored the role of savings goals in prediction by comparing spending predictions for time periods and discrete events. Contemplating a concrete event may elicit specific goals that compete with a focus on savings goals. Consistent with this hypothesis, Studies 1 and 2 revealed that participants relied less on savings goals, and were less biased, when predicting event spending rather than weekly spending. Study 3 demonstrated the causal impact of focusing on goals that compete with savings goals: Participants induced to focus on competing goals predicted to spend more money next week, and relied less on savings goals to generate their predictions.
This three-part study examined 421 mid-Atlantic university students' perceptions of the content of social stereotypes related to fathers- and men-in-general. College students viewed men-in-general as having far fewer positive parenting and personal qualities, but generally did not differ in breadwinning characteristics when compared to fathers-in-general. The results empirically supported the notion that younger adults generally do not view men-in-general as having the qualities associated with active fathering (e.g., being physically, financially, or emotionally involved with children), although they are seen as comparable providers. Men-in-general also are viewed much more negatively than fathers-in-general. Implications of the findings are discussed.
We examined unique associations between surface personality traits of emotional intelligence, core self-evaluations, and subjective well-being in dental students. A cross-sectional study of 218 undergraduates showed that trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) and core self-evaluations (CSE) predicted subjective well-being controlling the Big Five personality traits. Structural equation modeling showed that trait EI and the neuroticism component of CSE better predicted affective components of subjective well-being, and cognitive CSE traits (self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control) better predicted life satisfaction, the cognitive component of subjective well-being. These findings demonstrate the utility of a parallel-process approach that specifies differential prediction of cognitive and affective subjective well-being components.
People generally consider money a necessary evil because it invokes dual effects. On one hand, it increases people's productivity and performance, but it also decreases people's sensitivity to others. I conducted three experimental studies with an attempt to reduce the negative effects of money. Results indicated that when money was framed as a social incentive, its negative effect was attenuated and people exerted more helping behavior in both hypothetical and real-life scenarios. However, when a social incentive was framed in monetary terms, the negative effect of money prevailed in hypothetical but not in real-life scenarios. Results suggested that money itself is not the root of evil or good, but rather its effects are influenced by our perceptions of its role.
Academically and vocationally educated parents were asked to assess their child's academic competencies and motivation when the child was in preschool, then every 2 years till the end of the child's comprehensive school. It was found that the initial increasing trend in the parental attributions of competence stabilized and even turned downwards and that the education- and gender-bound differences in the attributions, already manifest at the preschool stage, were still in evidence and had got more varied forms. It is suggested that parental perceptions of competencies are activated in a socially structured field of meanings and that highly educated parents construe their educational reality in terms of the social representation of natural giftedness.