Fresh waters in lakes, ponds, rivers, estuaries and wetlands are only 0·3% of available global surface water yet support 47–53% (> 15 000) of all extant fish species. Freshwater fishes are globally valuable yet threatened everywhere through overfishing, pollution, habitat loss, damming, alien invasive species and climate change. Hence, they are in dire need of effective and sustained conservation action, including through zoo and aquarium programmes in the wild and ex situ. To address these challenges, zoo and aquarium staff need to be familiar with the substantial issues, develop greater expertise, and become better integrated in wider regional and global initiatives in freshwater-fish conservation and sustainability. Resolving diverse issues requires knowledge of the many different values in the conservation of freshwater fishes, including sustainable commercial fisheries and the aquarium trade. It is necessary to assess and mitigate threats to fish survival through research and monitoring. An improved conservation-orientated science of threatened fish species is also needed in terms of taxonomy and biology. From this, the implementation and dissemination of appropriate conservation policies, strategies and legislation can be developed. All these factors enable direct practical action for fish conservation, in conjunction with improved zoo education, training and public communication. Finally, review and evaluation of the efficacy of various conservation actions must be carried out in order to plan future undertakings.

The 15 750 valid described species of freshwater fishes comprise around 25% of living vertebrate species diversity, and are a key economic and nutritional resource for people globally. However, information on the conservation status and distribution of freshwater fishes in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species^™ (Red List) has been extremely limited until recently. Over the last 10 years, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Species Programme Freshwater Biodiversity Unit has made significant progress to fill this information gap. From a base of only 660 freshwater-fish species assessed on the Red List in 2002, a further 5125 species assessments have now been completed. As of 2011, 60 freshwater-fish species are thought to be Extinct, eight are Extinct in the Wild and 1679 are threatened with extinction. This information, combined with new work to identify important sites for freshwater fishes, will help the world's zoos and aquariums identify potential targets (species or areas) for in situ and ex situ conservation programmes.

South America harbours the most diverse freshwater fish fauna in the world, and recent estimates point to between 6000 and 8000 species in the Neotropical region. Such fauna has diverse historical origins, either having invaded and diversified in fresh water from marine ancestors during the Palaeogene or being isolated on the continent since the end of the break-up of Gondwana in the Cretaceous. Taxonomic, morphological and ecological diversity of South American freshwater fishes is dramatic, as are the myriad freshwater habitats they inhabit. Unfortunately, many of these habitats are severely threatened by deforestation, water divergence for irrigation, industry and other uses by humans, hydroelectric damming, mining, pollution and invasive species. Despite these multiple threats, there are very few on-the-ground conservation initiatives in South America, although assessments of species-extinction risks have been produced at regional and subregional levels in different countries.

The Western Ghats, India, present a series of challenges and opportunities for novel approaches to conservation. Running parallel to the coast of the Indian Peninsula, the Ghats represent the western edge of the Deccan Plateau and traverse 1400 km over six states, giving rise to rivers that drain over a third of the country. A global biodiversity hotspot with varied topography housing diverse ecological niches, the Western Ghats present significant challenges to, and opportunities for, conservation. Dense human habitation near river systems and dependence on freshwater resources for livelihoods make it difficult to establish protected areas. Freshwater fishes in this region account for c. 40% of the freshwater fishes in India and around 189 species are endemic to the Western Ghats. All the usual threats to the fishes and their habitats are present, and the freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats are of great social and economic importance to the local community. Zoos, aquariums and the general public can play a role in conservation efforts through education and research. Utilizing traditional customs already in place, such as water bodies in the vicinity of temples where no fishing occurs, in conjunction with ecotourism and more modern technologies, such as live gene banks and cryopreservation, may ease the burden on the freshwater habitats and fishes in the region.

Freshwater systems are already in a worse condition overall than any other broad ecosystem type and have long suffered from a lack of adequate conservation attention. Likewise, relatively little attention is given to the climate-change impact vulnerability and response requirements of these systems. However, it is clear that freshwater habitats and their rich biodiversity are acutely vulnerable to a wide range of direct and indirect climate-change impacts. In addition to the severe socio-economic implications, these impact and response issues present an urgent engagement challenge for the conservation community. Although species-level conservation options are limited in the context of the overall biodiversity threat, it is evident that even under the most optimistic of climate-change impact scenarios many more species will require ex situ management for their survival. This conservation challenge will be compounded by a growing number of species for which there is no realistic likelihood of eventual persistence in the natural state. These issues highlight an urgent need for realistic climate-change impact considerations to be factored into threat evaluations, conservation planning and public-engagement initiatives.

The main goal of aquariums today is to raise public awareness and positively change visitor behaviour towards the environment. In addition, aquariums are becoming increasingly engaged in fish conservation programmes within their range country or overseas. The World Association of Zoo and Aquariums has developed a global aquarium strategy for conservation and sustainability. Within Europe, conservation-breeding programmes are managed by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria, and the European Union of Aquarium Curators Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Taxon Advisory Group. The large and growing number of species of freshwater fish under threat can make deciding which species are priorities for aquarium collections very difficult. The Regional Collection Plan is a mechanism that defines the role a species plays within a zoological collection, helping collection managers make decisions about which species of freshwater fish are prioritized for ex situ conservation management with an associated action plan used to ensure that conservation goals are realized. We present clear and demonstrable roles that public aquariums can play in the conservation of freshwater fishes and discuss the challenges for such conservation initiatives in European aquariums with the increasing trend for marine exhibits and marine-focused aquariums.

Management of freshwater fishes in zoos and aquariums for conservation breeding is a key area where much can be achieved with limited facilities and a comparatively modest financial outlay. Some species now survive only in captivity following in situ threats such as habitat loss. Fortunately, short generation length and high fecundity mean that populations of freshwater fishes can be readily maintained in anticipation of ecosystem reinstatement and a reintroduction programme, where conditions are appropriate. However, diseases that occur in captive populations may constrain any species recovery programme. Conversely, any disease not previously found in the wild population should not be present in captive fishes when the animals are reintroduced to the wild. Mycobacteriosis has regularly been identified in episodes of morbidity and mortality in groups of Extinct in the Wild and other threatened freshwater fishes maintained for conservation breeding. It is, therefore, a common impediment to breeding and reintroduction programmes. For any programme to succeed, the issue of disease management needs to be addressed and solutions found to the challenges. An overview of the elements that must be considered when mycobacteriosis is detected in captive populations of threatened freshwater fishes and ways in which these can be managed in aquariums are discussed here.

The Lake Victoria haplochromine cichlids comprise a unique ‘species flock’ of over 500 historic species, of which perhaps only half still exist because of the introduction of invasive species and eutrophication of the Lake. Dr Les Kaufman supervised the establishment of captive populations of those cichlids he was able to acquire from Africa and Europe by developing the first North American regional studbook. Long-term propagation of these fish was then undertaken by public aquariums in Europe and North America. One species, the Pitch-black fulu Haplochromis piceatus, stands out as it has thrived at public aquariums and within the organizational structure of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival Plans. These cooperative breeding programmes focus on the conservation of select species of threatened animals. Captive populations of H. piceatus at public aquariums in the United States show a relatively slow loss of genetic diversity. Additionally, fish in at least two breeding programmes show a higher than expected heterozygosity, indicating that these programmes are successfully keeping their fish from inbreeding. The husbandry and genetic management of this population of fish is outlined, hopefully providing useful information for nascent breeding programmes of other aquatic species at zoos and aquariums around the world.

Mahurangi Technical Institute (MTI) operates a commercial fish hatchery that conducts aquaculture research, acts as a teaching tool for aquaculture students, breeds native fish for reintroduction projects, and for supply to zoos and public aquariums for display, as well as breeding selected introduced species for biological control of aquatic weeds throughout New Zealand. This research arm has a long and successful history in the breeding and rearing of a number of fish species, including New Zealand native threatened freshwater-fish species. The Shortfin eel Anguilla australis, Giant kokopu Galaxias argenteus, Banded kokopu Galaxias fasciatus, Shortjaw kokopu Galaxias postvectis, Koaro Galaxias brevipinnis, Redfin bully Gobiomorphus huttoni, Common bully Gobiomorphus cotidianus, Giant bully Gobiomorphus gobioides, Cran's bully Gobiomorphus basalis, Freshwater shrimp Paratya curvirostris and Freshwater crab Amarinus lacustris have all been bred successfully at MTI. Of these native species, MTI has successfully closed the lifecycle of Giant kokopu, Banded kokopu, Cran's bully, Common bully, Freshwater shrimp and Freshwater crab. This paper focuses on work so far conducted to close the lifecycle of the Shortfin eel and the Giant kokopu.

Measures to conserve threatened populations of three species of fish in Scotland, Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.), Powan Coregonus lavaretus (L.) and Vendace Coregonus albula (L.), are described. The methods employed include in situ research, management and legislation, and successful ex situ translocation to new refuge sites.

Freshwater ecosystems in the south-eastern United States, a global hotspot for temperate aquatic biodiversity, are increasingly threatened by human activity. For 14 years, the Tennessee Aquarium Conservation Institute has partnered with many other organizations to lead reintroduction programmes for Lake sturgeon Acipenser fulvescens and Barrens topminnow Fundulus julisia. Consistent with our educational mission, new interactive exhibits and outreach programmes have been designed to connect more visitors with these programmes on-site. While aquariums and zoos are natural partners to fulfil the public outreach needs of recovery teams, they have equally important roles within the project team to lead in propagation and reintroduction science. New research initiatives into best practices in captive propagation and conservation planning for imperilled fishes provide scientific leadership to our conservation community that also gives credibility to our work. By preparing for a long-term investment and continuing to foster the good relationships already in place with the public and partners, we hope to continue building upon the success of our reintroduction programmes.

Aspects related to the natural history and behaviour of the Pacific horned frog Ceratophrys stolzmanni were investigated, mostly by observations under laboratory conditions. Ceratophrys stolzmanni is a poorly known species of horned frog (Ceratophryinae) that inhabits the xeric environments of Pacific coast in Ecuador and Peru. The species has been found only during the rainy season in western Ecuador. Herein, techniques for husbandry and reproduction, as well as reproductive and developmental features, are reported. Breeding was nocturnal and clutches, which were laid on the same night as courtship, contained a maximum of 2100 eggs. Development time (c. 27°C) from fertilization to hatching was 40 hours and metamorphosis was completed at 20–32 days. The amplectant position of C. stolzmanni differs from typical axillary amplexus of other anurans and may be the result of the unique morphology of Ceratophryinae. Data presented here are pivotal for captive-management programmes related to conservation, education and hobbyist activities.

Animals kept by zoos may express abnormal behaviours that are indicators of poor welfare. Environmental enrichment is a technique of providing items to animals that stimulate the expression of normal behaviours. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of providing simple environmental enrichment in the reduction of the expression of abnormal behaviour in captive-born Greater rhea Rhea americana at Belo Horizonte Zoo, south-eastern Brazil. As enrichment, fruit and vegetables were scatter fed to a group of seven birds from April to September 2009, and the behaviour of the birds was recorded using scan sampling with instantaneous recording of behaviour every 1 minute for 1 hour daily (90 hours of observation). The study was divided into three phases: baseline, enrichment and post-enrichment. The abnormal behaviours ‘pacing’, ‘eating faeces’ and ‘escaping behaviour’ reduced during the enrichment phase, but only the first two behaviours differed significantly between the phases; ‘walking’ and ‘foraging’, both positive behaviours, increased during the enrichment phase. These results showed that the implementation of simple environmental enrichment can stimulate the Greater rhea to exhibit more natural behaviours and improve their welfare.

Positive reinforcement training utilizes operant conditioning through intentionally pairing a reward with a desired behaviour. Despite frequent use in the husbandry of mammals in captivity, these techniques are rarely incorporated in avian husbandry protocols. Marabou stork Leptoptilos crumeniferus managers are encouraged to use husbandry training to combat frequently encountered management problems. Marabous can be aggressive in captivity, requiring careful management during introductions, flexibility when choosing individuals to house together and a sound understanding of Marabou stork behaviour. Susceptibility to foot problems means that Marabou storks need indoor housing during cold weather and their feet should be monitored. At the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland Edinburgh Zoo, a training programme was incorporated into the daily care of a pair of Marabou storks. This programme included clicker training and stationing, pair introduction, house training, health checks (including scale training) and crate training. Here, training experiences relating to this programme are presented, with additional reference to a similar programme run at Disney's Animal Kingdom, FL, USA. Through training, we were able to ease the process of moving birds, reduce aggression and regularly monitor health in a low-stress manner. We demonstrate that husbandry training can be effective without excessive time or staff costs, and can be rewarding for both birds and trainers.

The Shoebill Balaeniceps rex is an uncommon species in zoological collections worldwide. Although a few Shoebills have lived quite long lives, most have not and successful breeding is only known to have occurred on two occasions. Available literature and responses from a husbandry questionnaire were used to compile husbandry guidelines. Questionnaire responses were obtained from 17 zoos (100% of holders worldwide at the time of writing). These guidelines form the basis of this paper.

Although milk replacers are widely used to feed orphaned and injured marsupial joeys in Australia, little is known about the nutrient composition of these foods. We analysed two milk substitutes, Di-Vetelact (DiV) and Wombaroo Kangaroo (Wom) [milk stage >0·7 (joeys having completed 70% of their pouch life)], for their content of fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals and trace elements. The protein contents of DiV and Wom were 25·0% and 17·3% of fresh weight, respectively, and, except for tryptophan, the amino-acid profile compared favourably with three high-quality proteins. The fatty-acid content of DiV and Wom was 9·65% and 17·6%, respectively. Relative to marsupial milk, linoleic acid (DiV, 18·3%; Wom, 9·32%) and α-linolenic acid (DiV, 2·97%; Wom, 3·94%) were well represented in both milk replacers, but docosahexaenoic acid was not detected. Comparable amounts of zinc, iron, potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus were present in DiV and Wom, but the copper content of DiV was only 5% that of Wom and manganese was not detected in DiV. These data indicate that two popular marsupial milk replacers contain healthful amounts of many essential nutrients relative to marsupial milk but lack the docosahexaenoic acid that is critical for brain growth and development in mammals.

Squirrel monkeys (genus Saimiri) are species commonly kept in captivity in zoological collections. Fainting related to hypoglycaemia has been reported, and fits/seizures have also been observed relatively frequently in captive squirrel monkeys. However, as far as the authors are aware, there are no published reports of epilepsy in squirrel monkeys. Here we describe several cases of idiopathic epilepsy affecting related ♂ Bolivian Black-capped squirrel monkeys Saimiri boliviensis at ZSL London Zoo, the management of the cases and the possible implications for the captive-breeding programme.

Brucellosis is a zoonosis. The aim of this study was to check the health status of felids kept at the zoo of the Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiabá, Brazil. Blood samples were taken from seven Puma Puma concolor, five Jaguar Panthera onca, four Ocelot Leopardus pardalis and one Lion Panthera leo. Brucellosis serology and polymerase chain reaction were performed. The presence of antibodies and DNA of Brucella abortus and Brucella canis were not detected in P. leo. The amplification of DNA from B. abortus and B. canis was observed in the four Ocelot. DNA from B. abortus was detected in one Jaguar, and DNA from B. canis in two Puma and one Jaguar. Serology for B. abortus was positive in two Puma and two Jaguar, while B. canis was observed in one Ocelot and two Jaguar. Although not considered a source of infection to staff, multidisciplinary studies should be carried out to elucidate the role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of this zoonosis.

Successful management of herds of captive wildlife (small populations) requires monitoring of herd size over years. In many zoos, herd size is documented in the course of annual inventories without considering other epidemiological parameters. Here, the concept of the ‘anti-clockwise cycle’ of the relation between mortality and population size is introduced for herd management. Four different phases of this cycle can be distinguished: (I) herd size increases while mortality decreases; (II) herd size and mortality increase; (III) herd size decreases and mortality still increases; (IV) herd size and mortality decrease. Consequently, a herd can still prosper in size (I, II) while an increase in mortality rates (II) already indicates that it is heading towards collapse (III). All four phases of the cycle of herd development could be observed in 28 small, closed ruminant breeding groups at the Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation, Qatar. Applications of the concept presented here to evaluate herd development in captivity may help to stabilize or even increase the size of a herd in care, which is particularly important for breeding herds of threatened species. The ‘anti-clockwise cycle’ shows that a simple monitoring of the herd size in numbers is not enough to evaluate the sustainability and quality of the herd.

In 2008, the president of the city of Lodz appointed a committee to devise a four-part development strategy for the Municipal Zoological Garden in Lodz. One of the committee's tasks was to diagnose the current condition of the Zoo with special attention being given to: (1) area development and utilization; (2) condition of the facility and infrastructure; (3) animal keeping and breeding conditions, such as welfare and quality of the exhibits, including their educational value and attractiveness to visitors; and (4) evaluation of the landscape and aesthetics. A system of five ordinal scales (from 1 to 5) was developed and used to evaluate the Zoo. Evaluation of all technical facilities and infrastructure was based on their technical condition and aesthetics. However, animal exhibits were additionally evaluated on their attractiveness to visitors, ability to meet animal welfare needs and educational value. The total grade attained for the whole Zoo was 2·5 points. Moreover, an on-site inspection and analysis of information concerning the infrastructure allowed for a prediction of the area available for development and utilization, which amounted to 35%: the majority of the site (48%) is covered by vegetation. Additionally, it was established that most of the structures within the Zoo are obsolete and only 15% of the area of the Lodz Zoo contained attractive exhibits that should be preserved as a framework for further development.