1. Little is currently known about the biodiversity harboured by China's last remaining pristine temperate forests. Especially, studies into the diversity patterns of highly diverse insect taxa are very rare, while such studies are highly valuable, for example, as baseline to evaluate the effectiveness of China's ongoing large-scale reforestation efforts in restoring forest biodiversity.
2. We sampled ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) on 33 plots distributed across five distinct mature forest ecosystems occurring at altitudes between 700 and 2000 m on Changbai Mountain to address these prevailing knowledge gaps. Pitfall trapping yielded a total of 4834 ground beetles representing 47 species.
3. Carabid abundance increased while α-diversity decreased with increasing elevation. No significant correlation was observed between the abundance of common species and their elevational distribution. Beetle assemblages originating from the high-elevation forest types formed a partly overlapping cluster, while beetle assemblages at lower elevations were more strongly differentiated according to forest type. Our results support the assumption that carabids are highly sensitive to climate change.
4. The Korean pine-dominated forest, which has not previously been distinguished as a discrete forest type, showed a distinct carabid beetle composition, indicating its requirement of specific conservation attention. The carabid diversity in high-elevation birch forest and low-elevation mixed broad-leaved and conifer forests is particularly threatened by climate change, and long-term future monitoring of ground beetle diversity on Changbai Mountain is expected to provide extremely valuable insights into climate change-effects on insect communities in China's pristine temperate forests.

1. Agricultural intensification (AI) is a great threat to biodiversity and its negative effects on species richness of different communities have been repeatedly shown. The effects of AI on community composition and variability, however, are important for assessing the predictability of community responses, but have rarely been studied simultaneously and across different taxonomic groups.
2. In this study, we focused on parasitoids (primary and secondary) and predators (hoverflies and carabid beetles) of aphids in winter wheat fields with contrasting AI regimes (low AI, i.e. organic fields in structurally complex landscapes vs. high AI, i.e. conventional fields in structurally simple landscapes).
3. We found divergence in species composition of more specialised, low-dispersing primary and secondary parasitoids within high AI fields, probably due to the disruption of the exchanges of species between local populations in structurally simple landscapes. In contrast, species composition of less specialised, highly dispersing carabid beetles and hoverflies converged in fields with high AI, where they were characterised by the dominance of a single, vagile species adapted to high land-use conditions. Furthermore, temporal community shifts were only pronounced in primary parasitoids and hoverflies, with higher temporal changes in fields with high AI in primary parasitoids.
4. Collectively, our results illustrate that environmental homogenisation due to AI does not necessarily induce spatio-temporal homogenisation of communities, but rather can have contrasting effects on more specialised, low-dispersive parasitoids versus more generalised, high-dispersive predators, thereby demonstrating great differences in the predictability of responses to AI among aphid natural enemies.

1. Local extinction of specialist species due to fragmentation is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss. Increased extinction rates in smaller fragments are expected to result from both smaller local population sizes, which increase the effect of environmental or demographic stochasticity, and increased edge effects. The relative effect sizes of these two factors are still poorly investigated, however.
2. We attempt to disentangle these effects on ground beetle communities of temperate broadleaved woodland fragments situated in one of the most urbanised regions in Belgium. Assemblages were sampled along transects that extended from 30 m outside to 100 m inside both small and large historical forest fragments.
3. Although species assemblages within the forest were highly distinct compared to those sampled outside the forest, species turnover along these transects was less pronounced within forest fragments indicating only weak edge effects. The magnitude of edge effects did not differ significantly between large and small fragments. Nevertheless, larger differences in species composition were observed with respect to fragment size, wherein highly specialised species persisted only in the largest fragment.
4. In summary, increased local extinction processes in smaller fragments, which led to a strong reduction in specialised and wingless forest species, appeared to be the most important factor that drives changes in species composition in this historical and fragmented woodland complex.

1. Ivy (Hedera helix and H. hibernica) is a common autumn-flowering plant found in Europe, North Africa, Macaronesia and Asia. Here, we use five complementary approaches (pollen trapping, nectar refractometry, local and regional surveys of insects foraging on ivy flowers, local survey of ivy abundance) to evaluate its importance to the honey bee (Apis mellifera) and other flower-visiting insects in Sussex, England.
2. Pollen trapping at six hives in two locations showed that an average 89% of pollen pellets collected by honey bees in the autumn were from ivy.
3. Observations of foraging honey bees on ivy showed that ivy nectar is an even greater target than pollen, as 80% were collecting only nectar. Refractometry of samples from ivy flowers and from honey bees foraging on ivy showed that ivy nectar is rich in sugar, 49% w/w.
4. Surveys showed that the main insect taxa foraging on ivy were honey bees (21%), bumble bees (Bombus spp., 3%), ivy bees (Colletes hederae, 3%), common wasps (Vespula vulgaris, 13%), hover flies (Syrphidae, 27%), other flies (29%) and butterflies (4%). The surveys also showed significant temporal and spatial variation in taxon abundance and proportion.
5. A survey showed that ivy was very abundant on a small scale in both rural and urban areas, being present in 10/10 and 6/10 0.2 × 0.2 km samples within two 4 × 4 km areas respectively.
6. The results show that ivy should probably be considered a keystone species with a high value in the conservation of flower-visiting insects in autumn.

1. Despite the loss of natural ecosystems in the developed world during the past millennia, anthropogenic landscapes still sustain much biodiversity. Our question was, whether ten year changes in regional Odonata faunas are comparable between farmland and forested areas, or if the species pool of farmland areas respond in other ways than that of forest.
2. We used data of dragonfly larvae collected from 16 lakes in a farmland area in south-western Sweden in the years 2002 and 2011/12, and compared these to data from 34 lakes in a forest area in south-eastern Sweden in the years 1996 and 2006.
3. The species-richness in the agricultural region increased by 17% but decreased by 13% in the forested region. The changes in occurrence and regional distribution were similar in both areas, affecting 71% and 69% of the species pool. Average extinction rates were comparable between the agricultural and the forested region (38% and 43%) while colonisation rates differed greatly (64% and 114%).
4. The species composition differed between the regions; the forest lakes harboured a 29% larger species pool. It is possible that in the forested region, the regional species pool in areas surrounding the study sites could stabilise the extinction and have a positive effect on changes in species composition. We assume that the different habitat structures of the waters in the agricultural and the forest regions and changes in temperature are the main driving forces behind the shifts. The mean seasonal air temperature has increased by circa 0.5 °C in both regions, when comparing ten-year periods before each sampling year.

1. Dung beetles provide recognised environmental services in cattle production systems, but can be negatively affected by the pharmaceutical residues found in excreta, particularly macrocyclic lactones (ML).
2. The diversity and seasonal abundance of dung beetle communities were measured using baited pitfall traps and compared at four cattle ranches in Yucatan, Mexico, to assess the possible effects of ML residues. Cattle parasite control was performed at two of these ranches using ML.
3. A total of 93 274 dung beetles from 17 species were collected. The dominant species at all four ranches were Onthophagus landolti and Canthon indigaceus chevrolati. Compared to ranches where ML was not used, total abundance was higher but richness, evenness and diversity were lower at ranches where ML was used. Five other species were identified as potential indicator species for determining whether there was an effect of ML use at the studied ranches.
4. Seasonal patterns differed between beetle communities: those found at non-ML sites occurred in higher abundances in May and July, while those at ML sites had higher abundances in May and June. This was probably because herds on ML sites were treated with ML to control parasites in early July.
5. The application of ML for controlling cattle parasites was shown to have a negative effect on the diversity and abundance of dung beetles. These results emphasise the need for timing ML use in order to mitigate the adverse impacts on these insects.

1. Coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) provide important ecosystem services as biocontrol agents in contributing to the regulation of key agricultural pests. It is generally accepted that biodiversity of native coccinellid communities has been declining during recent decades. Here, we present the results of a long-term study of coccinellid communities and report an attempt to determine whether recent changes in land use have affected their composition.
2. Coccinellids were sampled in cereal crops, on wild herbaceous plants and deciduous trees during two periods (1976–1983 and 2002–2010).
3. There are similar species-rich communities of coccinellids on trees and wild herbaceous plants (average numbers of species 3.18 and 3.06, respectively) and a poorer community on cereals (2.63). Only a few species, associated with particular types of vegetation, differed in their absolute abundance in the first and second period. There was no obvious cause of this variation in abundance. Diversity of coccinellid communities was higher in the second than in the first period (Shannon-Wiener index 1.32 and 1.14 respectively), although the number of individuals was lower (average catch per sampling session 10.0 and 18.6 individuals respectively).
4. Over the 35 years of this study, the compositions of the communities remained essentially similar with the numbers of particular species more closely correlated in the two periods on cereals (R² = 0.97) than on herbaceous plants (R² = 0.74) and trees (R² = 0.67).

1. Ivermectin is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic drug, routinely administered to livestock worldwide, and concerns have been raised about its impacts on non-target dung fauna and pasture systems. This study reports the effect of sward structure (long sward, short sward, or bare ground) on ivermectin persistence and cowpat colonisation by invertebrates, during an on-farm experiment in the United Kingdom.
2. The levels of ivermectin in cowpats were high [21 899 μg kg⁻¹ (dry weight) 1 day after treatment with a pour-on formulation] and remained detectable throughout the 47-day trial. Residue breakdown occurred, but levels persisted above those lethal to some invertebrates. Sward structure had no significant effect on ivermectin levels.
3. Ivermectin residues affected cowpat colonisation. Diptera were present in significantly lower numbers in treated cowpats. Coprophagous Coleoptera were less affected by ivermectin residues, although some species were present in significantly higher numbers in treated cowpats in the long sward environments.
4. The non-target effects of pesticides are currently of concern to policy makers. The results of this research add further weight to these concerns, particularly with regard to the duration for which ivermectin persists in situ in UK pasture, and because of the preferential attraction to treated cowpats exhibited by coprophagous Coleoptera.

1. The distribution of steppe-like habitats and, consequently, species dependent on these habitats in Eurasia is currently highly fragmented beyond the zone of continental climate, as a result of unfavourable climatic conditions and anthropogenic transformation of the environment. This patchy distribution may pose a threat for persistence of steppic species, especially in central Europe. To develop conservation strategies, it is essential to collect information on genetic structure of the species occupying this kind of habitats.
2. We investigated the genetic structure and diversity of central and eastern Coraebus elatus (F.) populations using sequences of mtDNA and an anonymous fragment of the nuclear genome. Both markers exhibited similar pattern, indicating the presence of four or five highly differentiated evolutionary units (2.1–3.2% sequence divergence in mtDNA and 0.7–2.1% in the nuclear marker) encompassing populations from the Caucasus, the Azov Sea coasts, central Europe with the Balkans (with further substructuring) and probably western Europe. These clusters should be considered evolutionary significant units for the conservation biology of this species, and may form the basis for a future taxonomic revision.
3. Pattern of C. elatus diversity suggests that this species presently occupies not only continental ‘warm-stage’ refugia formerly described in Pontic and Pannonian areas but also cryptic steppic ‘warm-stage’ refugia in north-central Europe.
4. In line with other studies on steppic beetles, our data strongly suggest that such species are strongly structured genetically, with very limited genetic variation within populations, which may have very serious consequences for their persistence in the future.

1. Macroinvertebrate assemblages of temporary ponds are ideal model systems to explore biodiversity patterns and metacommunity ecology. In addition, the study of the environmental variables driving such biodiversity patterns is essential in establishing proper guidelines for the conservation of the singular fauna of temporary ponds, especially since such ponds are vulnerable systems.
2. We analysed the macroinvertebrate assemblages and environmental characteristics of 80 ponds spread across the Doñana National Park, SW Spain to (i) analyse macroinvertebrate β-diversity and metacommunity structure; and (ii) discern the main environmental and spatial drivers of these patterns.
3. The pond network was highly heterogeneous as temporary ponds were highly variable. Macroinvertebrate β-diversity partitioning showed that species replacement made the greatest contribution to total β-diversity while the contribution of nestedness was small. The macroinvertebrate community structure and β-diversity were similarly driven by: electrical conductivity (and co-variables alkalinity, pH, and ion concentrations), plant richness (and the co-variable pond surface area), maximum depth, marsh, and coastal proximity as well as two spatial descriptors extracted from Moran's eigenvector maps. The spatial descriptors indicated that large interpond distances were involved, suggesting that species dispersal limitations only take place over long distances in the area.
4. Those taxa that departed from the general nested pattern, termed idiosyncratic, significantly contributed to the maintenance of high pond network diversity through the species replacement and occurred within particular environmental conditions in the pond network.
5. These results reveal that environmental heterogeneity and connectivity are key factors in the preservation of high macroinvertebrate diversity in nested pond networks with high numbers of idiosyncratic species.

1. The Brazilian Cerrado, a vegetation mosaic considered to be a unique savannah hotspot, contains a great diversity of insects. It is uncertain how communities of insects in the Cerrado respond, at local scale, to the strong heterogeneity of the biome or to the increasing levels of anthropogenic disturbance.
2. This study examines the relative importance of habitat heterogeneity and human disturbance for the structure of drosophilid assemblages in this biome.
3. Our results are based on standardised monthly sampling at 25 sites (3 conserved forests, 4 disturbed forests, 8 conserved savannahs, and 10 disturbed savannahs) throughout 1 year.
4. The assemblage compositions differed across habitats. The conserved forests had a singular drosophilid assemblage characterised by typical narrow-ranging neotropical species. Assemblages from savannahs and disturbed forests contained more exotic species than those from conserved forests. The assemblages of disturbed forests were more similar to those of the savannahs than to those of the conserved forests. Savannah assemblages did not differ from each other; these assemblages shared a great number of both exotic and neotropical species widespread in neotropical regions.
5. At the reserve scale, the strong natural heterogeneity of the Cerrado is the primary factor impacting the structure of drosophilid assemblages. Nevertheless, disturbance explained the differences in assemblage structure between the conserved and disturbed forests. Even low disturbance levels in forests could cause a decrease in heterogeneity and begin to impoverish these environments, leading to the biotic homogenisation of this currently rich biome.

1. The East Mediterranean region is a global biodiversity hotspot for vertebrates and plants. Although oaks (Quercus) are the dominant tree species in semi-natural Mediterranean forests, the insect species richness associated with East Mediterranean oak forest has been insufficiently studied.
2. Species richness and composition of the saproxylic beetle assemblage, including its seasonal variation, of a stand of old oaks (Quercus calliprinos) in northern Israel was investigated. Flight-interception traps were used to sample beetles over a period of 2 years. In addition, a set of pitfall traps was placed in the trunk hollows in the second year of the study.
3. Fifty-two saproxylic beetle species were found associated with oaks in the field study. Among them, two saproxylic click-beetle species were previously unknown to science, and eight species represent new records for Israel. Both the number of species and the number of individuals showed two distinct phenological peaks during the year.
4. A preliminary list of saproxylic beetles inhabiting oaks in Israel was prepared and biogeographical distribution, host plants, habitat guild, and activity period are presented for each species. Together with our own data, the literature survey conducted for 19 beetle families established that at least 124 saproxylic beetle species are associated with oaks in Israel while about 40% of them are unique to the Levantine region. As most localities with old-growth oak forest structures are small and isolated, ongoing management should have high priority despite the fact that these forests already receive protection.

1. The proportion of native individuals in North American lady beetle communities has declined precipitously over the past 30 years, particularly in annual cropping systems. At the same time, the number and abundance of exotic coccinellid species have been on the rise as beetles are introduced both inadvertently and intentionally for the purposes of biological control.
2. Perennial grasslands have been proposed as refuge habitats that promote native lady beetles, either by resisting the invasion of exotics or by providing a consistent source of shelter and resources.
3. Our objective is to compare the conservation value for native lady beetles of different perennial grassland habitats that vary in their degree of habitat modification and disturbance.
4. The abundance, species richness, and species composition of native and exotic lady beetles were compared across remnant native tallgrass prairies, native tallgrass prairies actively restored from cultivation and exotic tall fescue grasslands grown as forage crops.
5. Native species dominated the lady beetle community in all perennial grassland habitats, with more than 95% of captured individuals being native in origin. Exotic lady beetle species were equally rare across all habitat types.
6. The grassland habitat considered the most disturbed, agriculturally grown exotic tall fescue, had the highest abundance and species richness of native lady beetles and a unique composition of species as compared to prairie habitats. Lady beetle communities in remnant and restored tallgrass prairies were indistinguishable, indicating that prairie restoration successfully re-established coccinellid communities.
7. Promoting perennial grasslands, both natural and agricultural, within disturbed landscapes has the potential to enhance native lady beetle populations.

1. The potential of commercially managed, native blue orchard bees, Osmia lignaria, to augment honey bees in orchard pollination depends on various factors, particularly how to enhance O. lignaria retention while optimising even pollination throughout orchards by varying their stocking density and nesting site distribution.
2. In 2011, we investigated how artificial nest box density and the number of cavities within nest boxes influenced O. lignaria retention and reproduction in a 61 ha almond orchard pollinated by a mixture of O. lignaria and Apis mellifera in the southern Central Valley of California. We assessed how localised O. lignaria nesting affected total nut yield.
3. Retention of O. lignaria females was significantly greater in orchard areas with high density nest boxes compared with areas with low density nest boxes. Females preferred to nest in high density (low cavity) nest boxes compared to low density (high cavity) nest boxes. All measures of O. lignaria reproductive success were greater in orchard areas with high density nest boxes than areas with low density nest boxes.
4. Localised O. lignaria foraging and nesting activity influenced nut yield by producing more nuts in orchard areas with high density nest boxes compared with low density nest boxes, although differences in nut yield just failed to meet statistical significance.
5. Results of this study show that the density and distribution of nest boxes for nesting O. lignaria females can strongly influence the reproductive success of an alternative, managed bee pollinator in a large production orchard.

1. Batesian mimicry has been repeatedly reported in syrphid flies (Diptera: Syrphidae), with noxious Hymenoptera identified as the models, including bumblebees (Hymenoptera: Aculeata). Despite the number of detailed studies of bumblebee mimics from the Holarctic, only minimal biological and ecological information is available for the same phenomenon in most other biogeographical regions.
2. Here, we analyse in detail a case of Batesian mimicry by the syrphid fly Aneriophora aureorufa Philippi towards the bumblebee Bombus dahlbomii Guérin from Patagonia, a relationship only briefly noted previously in taxonomic studies. A. aureorufa possesses strikingly similar red tawny colouration to the highly hairy body of its model, and somewhat resembles it also in size. Cluster analysis suggests that the mimicry is more pronounced towards larger rather than smaller bumblebee workers.
3. The mimicry is visually very good, but there was no evidence of a behavioural component. Foraging activity of both species seems to be largely restricted to the endemic plant Eucryphia cordifolia. The time spent on flowers was much higher in syrphid flies than in B. dahlbomii and other pollinators, and the time spent between flower visits largely overlapped between all the tested species.
4. The endemic distribution, the apparent plant specialisation, and the invasion of alien bumblebees, make B. dahlbomii and A. aureorufa potentially threatened in some parts of the austral American forests, a priority conservation area.

1. Broad-scale spatial patterns in species richness have been widely investigated with spatial statistics tools in the past few years. The primary goal of these investigations has been to understand the ecological and evolutionary processes underlying such patterns. Nevertheless, most of the current (climate) explanations for these patterns actually rely on the geographical range limits of species, so that a better understanding of such processes may be achieved by coupling richness and distribution (niche) models.
2. We analysed the geographical ranges and richness patterns for 115 triatomine species in the Neotropics, modelled as a function of 12 environmental variables expressing alternative hypotheses that have been used to explain richness gradients. These analyses were based on spatial [spatial eigenvector mapping (SEVM)] and non-spatial ordinary least-squares multiple regression models. The geographical ranges of species were also individually analysed using a general linear model (GLM). The coefficients of the regression models for richness and distribution were then compared.
3. Spatial analyses revealed that the unique contributions of spatial eigenvectors and environmental variables to richness were, respectively, equal to 24.2% and 12.2%, with high coefficient values for temperature, actual evapotranspiration, and seasonality. Similar results were obtained using a GLM, and the mean GLM coefficients had a relatively high correlation with those obtained with SEVM (r = 0.586; P < 0.05).
4. Our analyses show that the drivers of Neotropical Triatominae richness and of its species ranges show a high correlation, although the differences among the drivers may be important for understanding the emergent properties (historical processes and species-specific environmental drivers) that explain richness patterns. Moreover, although our analyses identified an important role for temperature and temperature seasonality in explaining both species richness and distributions, other spatially structured environmental variables and historical factors may explain a large part of the variation in diversity patterns.

1. Genetic techniques are important tools for conservation, but tissue sampling for DNA analysis can be particularly detrimental to small study organisms. Historically, obtaining DNA samples from small insects and butterflies has involved destructive (lethal) methods.
2. Recent improvements to DNA purification technologies have increased the likelihood that non-lethal sampling will be successful. In spite of this, only a few studies have evaluated the impacts of sampling on survival and behaviour.
3. The Hermes copper, Lycaena hermes (Edwards), butterfly has a restricted distribution and generally less than 10 individuals are encountered at any one location. Non-lethal DNA sampling would allow for genetic studies that have the potential to augment conservation decisions without causing local extirpations.
4. We demonstrate that removing a leg from an adult male Hermes copper does not have a measureable effect on their survival, longevity or behaviour. In addition, a single leg provides a sufficient DNA sample for amplified fragment length polymorphism studies.
5. The Hermes copper butterfly represents the smallest butterfly species for which the survival and behaviour has been assessed in relation to non-lethal tissue sampling. This suggests that research involving smaller and more delicate species could utilise leg removal as a non-lethal genetic sampling technique.

1. The aim of this study was to compare the butterfly assemblages in semi-natural pastures and power-line corridors and to analyse the effects of vegetation height, occurrence of trees and shrubs and different flowering vascular plant groups on butterfly diversity and abundance.
2. Twelve of 26 analysed butterfly species were more abundant in power-line corridors than in semi-natural pastures. Only one species preferred semi-natural pastures.
3. In semi-natural pastures butterflies were most common in segments with tall vegetation, whereas butterflies in power-line corridors were most common in segments with vegetation of short or intermediate height. Short vegetation was sparser in power-line corridors (mean cover 4%) than in semi-natural pastures (33%), whereas tall vegetation was more common in power-line corridors (59%) than in semi-natural pastures (35%).
4. The amount of flowers was the factor that affected the abundance of most species. Twenty-one of the 26 species showed positive associations with numbers of flowers of different families.
5. Flowers of the plant families Apiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae, Rubiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Violaceae showed positive associations with the abundance of several butterfly species.
6. Vegetation height seems to be a limiting factor in semi-natural pastures, and less intensive management (division of pastures into grazing pens, late season grazing, grazing every second year, or reduced grazing pressure) would benefit butterflies. In power-line corridors (dominated by tall vegetation) the opposite would be beneficial for butterflies, for example more frequent clearing of vegetation along the power-line trails combined with mowing of selected areas.

1. Parasites are essential elements in healthy natural ecosystems. Also, they constitute most of the world's biodiversity. Therefore, they deserve to be conserved together with their hosts.
2. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid in the world because it only survives in two isolated populations in the Iberian Peninsula, with no more than 300 free-ranging individuals.
3. Felicola (Lorisicola) isodoroi is a louse exclusively parasitic on the Iberian lynx, and it appears to be scarcer and therefore more endangered than its host.
4. Current management activities devoted to the conservation of the Iberian lynx, such as reproduction in captivity for restocking, could compromise the survival of its louse species.
5. In this article we revise the ectoparasites of the Iberian lynx and discuss their potential role for transmission of pathogens.
6. Also, we propose measures which could enhance the survival of F. (L.) isidoroi.

1. Fire greatly affects plant and animal biodiversity. There is an extensive body of literature on the effects of fire on insect communities, in which a large variability of responses has been observed. Very few studies, however, have addressed functional responses at the species level, information that would greatly enhance our understanding of the impact of fire at higher organisational levels.
2. The aim of this study is to analyse the short-term ecological and behavioural responses of the Mediterranean ant Aphaenogaster gibbosa to fire-induced environmental changes. We compared aspects of the abiotic and biotic environment relevant to this species, as well as differences in colony foraging behaviour, on unburnt and burnt plots in a Mediterranean area that was affected by a wildfire.
3. Our results showed that fire modified plant cover around nests and daily cycles of soil temperature close to the nest. Although there were no significant differences in food quantity, food quality (particularly seed composition) was different between unburnt and burnt plots.
4. In accordance with these environmental changes, we found significant differences in the daily activity rhythms and diet composition of A. gibbosa between unburnt and burnt plots. Overall, these differences did not result in significant changes in overall foraging activity and efficiency, allowing ant colonies to maintain the same food intake regardless of the habitat they occupied.
5. We conclude that A. gibbosa uses behavioural plasticity to modify its foraging strategy in recently burnt environments and thus survive post-fire conditions.

1. Estimates of animal abundance are essential to conservation biology and are sorely lacking for many endangered species in the United States of America. This lack of knowledge may disproportionately affect butterflies in the USA, which form the largest group of federally protected insects (20 of 62 species).
2. The Mitchell's satyr butterfly, Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii, is a federally endangered species found at 18 highly isolated sites in the Eastern USA. Currently, surveys are conducted by meandering through habitat and recording the number of butterflies observed. These surveys are efficient in terms of staffing and time, but the data from these surveys cannot be used to estimate abundance. Mark release recapture surveys generate estimates of demographic parameters and have been conducted, albeit infrequently, and require high staffing levels and weeks of fieldwork to generate estimates with reasonable error.
3. I employed hierarchical distance sampling along line transects to estimate N. m. mitchellii abundance at one site in lower Michigan, USA. This method requires one observer to traverse a series of transects at a walking pace and record the number of butterflies observed and their perpendicular distance to the transect line. My results suggest that this method is as cost efficient as meander surveys, but generates reasonable estimates of butterfly abundance.

1. Agricultural intensification often leads to loss and fragmentation of natural and semi-natural habitats. As a consequence, biodiversity in intensively managed agro-ecosystems is often lower than in agricultural landscapes with greater natural and semi-natural land cover. Different types of semi-natural habitat may support specific species assemblages thereby increasing landscape-level biodiversity, but this has seldom been tested, especially for insects that have different functional roles in agro-ecosystems.
2. Here, we quantified these habitat-specific contributions by surveying species richness and composition of wild bees, true bugs and ground beetles and compared them among different types of semi-natural habitats within two differently structured agricultural landscapes in Switzerland.
3. We found high shares of habitat specific species and habitat types within landscapes to differ up to fourfold in their specificity (i.e. their contribution to the total landscape species richness). Using statistical null models for habitat specificity and multiplicative beta diversity, we identified habitats that contributed more or less than expected by chance to the overall species diversity at the landscape level.
4. The observed degree of complementarity among habitats highlights the importance of habitat diversity for insect species richness and potentially ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes. By helping to understand better the habitat-specific contributions to insect diversity in agricultural areas, our results will facilitate targeted conservation measures and sustainable landscape planning. Yet, qualitative differences in habitat specificity and separation of habitat-specific communities observed between landscapes should be explored further in future studies of multiple landscapes.

1. Dispersal is an important process for any organism, but especially for endangered species in fragmented landscapes. To enhance the dispersal of a certain species, connectivity measures are implemented, which require knowledge on the species' dispersal behaviour and habitat. It is often assumed, that the preferred reproductive habitat of a species is also used as the main dispersal habitat. Although this assumption has often been confirmed, there are also cases where it has been disproved.
2. With a combination of a mark-resight study and genetic analysis conducted in a fragmented agricultural landscape in Switzerland, the dispersal habitats of the threatened damselfly Coenagrion mercuriale were analysed for different distance classes. In addition, maximum dispersal distances were estimated.
3. The mark-resight study detected movement over short distances (≤500 m) mainly within the reproductive habitat of C. mercuriale (i.e. streams).
4. In contrast, the genetic study detected both short- and long-distance dispersal. Short-distance dispersal occurred along streams, and discontinuity of streams hindered dispersal. Long-distance dispersal was suggested to happen along more or less straight lines and crossing agricultural land. Genetic analysis also showed that populations were well connected and that few individuals dispersed over larger distances (≤4500 m).
5. Our study showed that connected reproductive habitat enhanced short-distance dispersal in C. mercuriale. Although short-distance dispersal occurred frequently, long-distance dispersal was rare, but important to connect more isolated populations. Therefore, it would be relevant to differentiate between these two dispersal types when planning connectivity measures.

1. Frequent and extensive burning practices coupled with intensive grazing management are known to impact negatively on the vegetation diversity of grassland ecosystems. Few studies have investigated the impacts on spider diversity and community structure as a result of these management practices, and no studies have been conducted in high mountain grasslands on how these spider assemblages are influenced by this form of management.
2. Here, we present the results of a study conducted in the Mpumalanga grasslands on the eastern escarpment of South Africa. Ground-dwelling spiders were sampled in the summer season from 180 pit-fall traps in five study sites that varied from either being burnt annually and grazed heavily, burnt biennially and conservatively grazed, to communal land with no set management practice. Variations between sites were assessed and based on spider species composition and assemblage structure.
3. A total of 1145 individuals were collected representing 86 species from 60 genera and 43 families. Our results show that a majority of genera in these grasslands were represented by very few individuals, where a total of 37 species were represented by singletons and 17 species that were doubletons. The most abundant families were the Lycosidae (64.3%), Gnaphosidae (9.0%), Zodariidae (5.3%), Linyphiidae (4.7%) and Salticidae (3.1%).
4. Grazing intensity and fire frequency had no measurable effect on ground-dwelling spider abundance diversity or assemblage structure. Only when rare or single species occurrence was included, was there some form of association with sites. This study has provided for the first preliminary inventory of ground-dwelling spiders for this habitat.

1. The way in which species interactions are altered at habitat edges is an emerging concern in conservation biology, with some theories predicting edge-affected habitats to be less stable and exhibit intensified species interactions relative to interior habitats. One little-studied interaction is phoresy, where an individual of one species attaches itself to an individual of another species for the purpose of dispersal. Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) are important crop pollinators around the world and at least 10 species of phoretic mites have been associated with various bumble bee species.
2. Here, we investigated changes in the abundance of the introduced European B. terrestris across forest-grassland edges in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, and concomitant changes in the phoretic mite loads on these mobile pollinators.
3. Bumble bees penetrated up to 250 m inside forest fragments, with abundance declining with distance from the anthropogenic matrix habitat. By contrast, phoretic mite loads increased towards the forest interior. Overall, phoretic mite loads on B. terrestris were greatest in the forest canopy, suggesting that this species interaction is intensified in natural habitat compared to that in the anthropogenic land use surrounding forest fragments.
4. Our data indicate that phoretic loads on bumble bees are elevated in forest canopies. The functional significance of altered bumble bee – mite interactions for pollination services at forest edges remains to be tested.

1. In this study, the potential of Malaise traps to collect representative portions of an insect community was investigated. To do so, the complete catch (nearly 22 000 specimens) of male Chironomidae (Diptera) from five parallel Malaise traps along an alpine stream was identified and assigned to 108 different species. The traps were run for 4 weeks in June and July, 2008.
2. The similarity in community composition between parallel samples, that is, from different traps the same week, was evaluated by fitting a bivariate Poisson-lognormal species abundance model. The estimated correlation in this bivariate distribution was used as a measure of similarity since this approach is utilising all the available species abundance information and accounts for the sampling process.
3. Estimated similarities showed non-significant differences in chironomid community structure between parallel samples. The five Malaise traps sampled equally representative portions of the Chironomidae community present at the site, so the traps were found to be very reliable in the monitoring of Chironomidae community structure.
4. Application of the bivariate correlation as a similarity measure offers advantages over traditional measures because it takes account of the complete species abundance distributions. This approach provides an approximately unbiased estimate of similarity despite varying sample sizes and detection/non-detection of species that are present, but rare.

1. Although hybridisation is common in animals, it rarely results in speciation. Yet, many examples of hybrid species have been documented in one animal group, the stick insects (Phasmida).
2. The New Zealand stick insect Acanthoxyla is of particular interest as the entire genus is of hybrid origin and consists of eight morphological forms recognised as species, all of which are obligate parthenogens.
3. Using five complementary techniques on the same individuals, our study confirms that both triploids and diploids are present in Acanthoxyla populations, and further, that some individuals contain both diploid and triploid cells.
4. Chromosome spreads and estimates of relative DNA content from flow cytometry provided contrasting information about the ploidy of this unusual parthenogenetic genus.
5. Analysis of morphometric variation showed no correlation with ploidy level in Acanthoxyla, and also mtDNA sequence networks failed to distinguish morphospecies or ploidy level.
6. Unexpectedly, cloned sequences of a putatively single-copy nuclear marker were also unhelpful in distinguishing ploidy, instead indicating that phosphoglucose isomerase is likely to be a multiple copy gene.
7. We propose a mechanism for the evolution of the Acanthoxyla lineage and suggest that interpretation may be complicated by the presence of individuals that are diploid and triploid mosaics.

1. Dead wood is a primary habitat for a large number of insects, including species from many nematoceran (Diptera) groups. The species living in dead wood must be adapted to the ephemeral and ever-changing nature of their substrate. There is a growing body of knowledge about the effects of dead wood quality and the surrounding landscape on the saproxylic beetle community, but we know very little about the other saproxylic insects. Moreover, we know only very little about the variation in the insect community between different parts of decaying wood pieces.
2. Using emergence traps, we studied the saproxylic nematoceran communities occupying different parts of decaying fallen aspen trunks in a boreal forest. To explain the variation in the detected assemblages, we also studied the variation in the physical environment in different parts of one of the studied trunks during the season.
3. We found out that the overall variation in assemblages was very high and also the similarity between the base and top of the same trunk was usually low. Dissimilarity arose more from differences in species richness than from species turnover. The greatest contrasts in the physical conditions of the study trunk were between the inside and the upper and lower surface of the trunk base.
4. Due to high variation within the trunks and especially between the trunks, the sampling effort in studies on the ecology of saproxylic insects should be high to have a reliable estimate of the local community.

1. Circellium bacchus is South Africa's largest ball-rolling dung beetle and a habitat specialist of dense bush. It is also wingless, a rare phenomenon amongst large dung beetles and, unusual for the group, only females construct and bury brood balls. She cares for the single brood for 4–5 months, and lives for 3–5 years.
2. The beetles currently occur in two separate populations in South Africa, one in the south-east and one consisting of at least eight fragmented sub-populations in the south-west. Here, we use both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences to infer the evolutionary history of this species.
3. The Eastern and Western populations are genetically separated by 14% mitochondrial sequence divergence, sharing only a single nuclear haplotype. Mitochondrial and nuclear data indicate that C. bacchus belongs to an ancient (Eocene) relict lineage and that the Eastern and Western populations appear to have been separated by Pliocene continental uplift and a relictual Pleistocene block of temperate forest. Subsequent Plio-Pleistocene climatic change caused further fragmentation of the Western population, now exacerbated by human-induced land transformation.
4. The Eastern and Western populations are identifiable as two distinctly separate entities of possible species status, but with definite need for recognition as evolutionary significant units. The Western sub-populations are genetically significantly different enough to be defined and recognised as management units. The Eastern population is largely distributed in the Addo Elephant National Park where its persistence is currently secure, but the sub-populations of the Western lineage occur as fragments of various sizes in a matrix of agriculturally transformed landscape.

1. Species richness of microarthropods in coastal temperate rainforests of western North America is enhanced by the presence of heterogeneous arboreal habitats (moss mats). We studied the relationship between species traits and microclimate as a structuring mechanism for understanding this high diversity.
2. To examine whether community composition is associated with distinct microclimate zones we used Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling ordination of environmental and community data. To link the traits of arboreal microarthropod species with observed environmental variables we used a trait-based approach of RLQ and fourth-corner analysis.
3. Distinct microclimatic zones were observed in the canopy ecosystem stemming from gradients of moisture, temperature, and climatic stability associated with height in canopy and distance from trunk. Associated with these gradients is the growth and development of epiphytic bryophytes such as moss mats and suspended soils, which in turn, influence canopy microclimates.
4. Microarthropod fauna displayed a community-level response to microclimate gradients which was mediated and partially explained by a trait-based analysis. A general decline in species richness was associated with harsher microclimate conditions. While many species possessed desiccation resistance traits under low-moisture conditions, we posit that other species were able to persist by compensatory movements at very small spatial scales.
5. In conclusion this study highlights the importance of environmental buffering associated with greater epiphytic biomass for preserving canopy microarthropod biodiversity, but also how developing an understanding of the species trait distributional shifts can enhance our understanding of communities under different environmental conditions, and for predicting future communities under global environmental change.

1. We extrapolate a new range of estimates of the species richness of Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) wasps, a diverse group of small parasitoids that attack caterpillars of Lepidoptera.
2. Our estimates, using an array of focal study faunas to provide reasonable bounds for minimum and maximum values, range from 17 000 to 46 000+ species. These calculations make use of a geographically relatively constant proportion of the total number of local caterpillar species to species of Microgastrinae, and extend what is known from better studied areas to those less thoroughly studied.
3. This new estimate of species richness for Microgastrinae is 8–20 times that of the ∼2000 currently described species, and 2–10 times greater than that of previously published estimates.

1. Species abundance distributions of moth and beetle assemblages, in addition to beetle feeding guilds, were examined using data collected by light traps in a cool-temperate deciduous forest at Hokkaido, Japan.
2. Four types of species abundance distributions with a continuous shift in shape (broken stick, log-normal, power function, and dispersal-limited multinomial) were fitted and compared, and then the deviation of observed data from that expected for the neutral model (dispersal-limited multinomial distribution) was tested using species evenness and richness.
3. Significantly better fits were obtained for the neutral model than for the other models for all assemblages and all beetle guilds. This result implies that the better fits of the neutral model might be characteristic of transient assemblages having an excess of rare species.
4. The evenness of species abundance distributions for assemblages and guilds, except for moths associated with the understorey and predatory beetles, significantly deviated from that expected by the neutral model. The departure of beetle guilds (detritivores, herbivores, and xylophages) from the neutral model suggests their microhabitat dependence.
5. The neutral model may prove to be a viable null hypothesis for examining the species abundance distributions of insect assemblages. In this study, we found that although stochastic dynamics appeared to have an increasing influence on insect community assembly, there are also complex biological processes still likely to be present.
6. The fits of the neutral model suggest that habitat connectivity and microhabitat diversity are potentially important for conserving moth and beetle diversity in a temperate forest.

1. Stump extraction for bio energy is a new forestry activity and before large-scale implementation occurs, it is important to analyse its consequences. Saproxylic beetles depend on dead trees and stump extraction will reduce the amount of habitat available for this group.
2. Early warning signs of impending regional species extinctions were looked for in areas where stump harvest has only been conducted for about 3 years. In a paired design (N = 8), the beetle fauna was sampled in stumps on ordinary clear-cuts and on clear-cuts from which stumps had been extracted. Sampling in extraction clear-cuts was possible because 25% of the stump volume was retained. Samples were collected by bark sieving ten Norway spruce, Picea abies, stumps per clear-cut.
3. In total, 6959 individuals of 46 species were found. Several early warning signs were seen: stump extraction reduced the number of species per stump and per clear-cut and reduced the species evenness in individual stumps.
4. Species at higher trophic levels (predators and fungivores), in particular, suffered negative effects. Stump extraction reduced the number of species of fungivores and facultative predators/fungivores at the clear-cut level and reduced the relative abundance of predators at the stump level.
5. These results indicate that if stumps are extracted from a high proportion of the clear-cuts in a region, the present recommendations of leaving 15–25% of the stump volume will be insufficient for preserving the beetle fauna in the stumps. Further studies are needed to identify levels of stump retention that do not lead to species loss.

1. Old growth temperate broadleaved forests are characterised by a large proportion of forest specialists with low dispersal capability. Hence, species bound to this habitat are expected to be highly susceptible to the effects of decreasing patch size and increasing isolation.
2. Here, we investigate the relative effect of both factors by genotyping individuals of a flightless and forest specialist beetle Carabus problematicus from 29 populations, sampled in 21 different forest fragments in Belgium, at eight microsatellite loci.
3. A high degree of genetic differentiation among fragments was observed, with populations from smaller forests being considerably more differentiated and characterised by a lower genetic diversity compared to those of larger forests.
4. A more detailed study on forest remnants of a former historic continuous woodland area revealed that population differentiation was high among, but not within remnants, irrespective of geographical distance. This suggests that patch fragmentation rather than geographical distance is the ultimate factor that hampers gene flow in this species.
5. The results indicate that gene flow among suitable habitat patches is primarily reduced by the inability of this specialised species to traverse the landscape matrix. This lack of dispersal may pose a serious threat for the persistence of C. problematicus and ecologically similar species, and suggests that present populations can best be protected by securing or increasing the size of existing habitat patches.

1. Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation are the main threats to biodiversity. Human activities also create new habitat types that might fulfil ecological requirements for a variety of species.
2. This study investigates whether the vegetation clearing (=shrub and tree cutting) on drained mire patches on power line rights-of-ways (ROWs) keep plant communities in an early successional stage and thus provide habitats for mire specialist and non-mire butterflies. It was further studied what would be the optimal clearing interval in terms of butterfly species richness and abundance.
3. The results show that tree height, especially the height of birch, increases linearly over the 7-year period following vegetation clearing. The average birch height had a significant negative relationship with the species richness of mire and non-mire butterflies.
4. The clearing interval had a significant curvilinear relationship with the abundance of both mire and non-mire butterflies, such that the highest abundances were documented two to four growing seasons after the clearing, which would hence be the ecologically optimal vegetation clearing cycle.
5. In general, vegetation management on power line ROWs enhance favourable conditions for butterflies and may maintain habitats for mire-dependent butterflies, even on drained mires.

1. Taxonomic sufficiency, or the suitability of substituting higher level taxonomic designations as response variables in community ecology analyses, is important in biodiversity studies from practical and fundamental perspectives. While there are many studies of taxonomic sufficiency in aquatic systems, there are few studies with terrestrial arthropods that examine the effects of taxonomic resolution on the interpretation of multivariate community data.
2. We analysed data sets from three major arthropod orders (Araneae, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera) using multivariate methods to determine whether altering the level of taxonomic resolution (species, genus, or family) affected patterns in community composition and beta diversity under various forest disturbance treatments.
3. Overall patterns of community composition and beta diversity did not differ across taxonomic levels; however, patterns in group structure and significance of treatment effects were often stronger at species and/or genus level.
4. The similarity between the outcomes of multivariate analyses at different levels of taxonomic resolution was related to within-group taxonomic ratios; results were less consistent across levels of taxonomic resolution in groups with higher taxonomic ratios (i.e. more species per genus).
5. We conclude that higher levels of taxonomic resolution will be sufficient for detecting the impacts of disturbance in lineages of terrestrial arthropods with higher levels of phylogenetic constraint, although this does not negate the necessity and importance of species-level identifications in situations with sufficient resources and where study questions demand alpha taxonomy.

1. In response to evidence of insect pollinator declines, organisations in many sectors, including the food and farming industry, are investing in pollinator conservation. They are keen to ensure that their efforts use the best available science.
2. We convened a group of 32 ‘conservation practitioners’ with an active interest in pollinators and 16 insect pollinator scientists. The conservation practitioners include representatives from UK industry (including retail), environmental non-government organisations and nature conservation agencies.
3. We collaboratively developed a long list of 246 knowledge needs relating to conservation of wild insect pollinators in the UK. We refined and selected the most important knowledge needs, through a three-stage process of voting and scoring, including discussions of each need at a workshop.
4. We present the top 35 knowledge needs as scored by conservation practitioners or scientists. We find general agreement in priorities identified by these two groups. The priority knowledge needs will structure ongoing work to make science accessible to practitioners, and help to guide future science policy and funding.
5. Understanding the economic benefits of crop pollination, basic pollinator ecology and impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators emerge strongly as priorities, as well as a need to monitor floral resources in the landscape.

1. The California floristic province is home to several threatened or endangered species and has been the focus of numerous conservation efforts. These conservation efforts have largely ignored the diverse and distinctive arthropod fauna found in this region.
2. We investigate the species boundaries of the four tarantula (Araneae: Theraphosidae) species endemic to California's Southern Coast Ranges through molecular phylogenetic analysis using a 680 bp region of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 from 51 individuals.
3. Our analysis resulted in a well-supported phylogeny showing three distinct clades. As a result, we recognise only one species in the Southern Coast Ranges (Aphonopelma brunnius, with A. chamberlini and A. smithi treated as junior synonyms; if the holotype of A. rileyi is located it will likely be a synonym as well). Two additional species were found in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada.
4. Although the tarantulas in California's Southern Coast Ranges are not as endemic as was previously thought, their position as top arthropod predators make them ideal sentinel species, suggesting they should be targeted by conservationists. Furthermore, our analyses illustrate the importance in using molecular tools to investigate biodiversity.

1. Beetles (Coleoptera) are the most species-rich and ecologically diverse group of organisms in tropical rainforest canopies. This study reports on the distribution of the beetle community on five discrete canopy microhabitats (mature leaves, new leaves, flowers, fruit, and suspended dead wood) on 23 tree species in an Australian tropical rainforest. We tested the hypothesis that the beetle fauna will vary in community structure between microhabitats based on differences in the quantity, quality as a food source and availability of different canopy microhabitats.
2. There was substantial variation in dominant beetle families in terms of abundance between microhabitats. All assemblages contained a high number of rare species, with flowers supporting most of the more abundant species. Consequently, the flower-visitor assemblage was more heterogeneous than expected by chance, whereas the mature leaf assemblage was more even in the proportional abundances of species than expected.
3. The distribution of singletons was also non-random and flowers, which are spatially and temporally restricted, supported fewer singletons than expected by chance, whereas mature leaves and dead wood supported more. These differences were insensitive to beetle feeding guild, and are most likely related to variation in microhabitat distribution and availability, which influenced relative sampling efforts and the probability of random microhabitat/beetle associations.
4. High dissimilarity in species overlap between microhabitats suggests that each microhabitat attracts a unique beetle assemblage, which has an additive effect on canopy-wide species richness patterns. Consequently, biodiversity studies that focus on single microhabitats may inadvertently omit a large proportion of canopy species.

1. Insect herbivore-plant associations have been widely explored in the scientific literature over the past decades, but other insect-plant associations have received little focus so far.
2. Tank-bromeliads host a large number of invertebrate species and, even though previous studies showed a strong variation in community composition among tank-bromeliad species, the reasons for this variation are still unclear.
3. In this study, we first examined whether different bromeliad species supports distinct and predictable community compositions and whether such variation was caused by (i) the bromeliad species itself, (ii) to its environment, and/or (iii) the covariance between both.
4. We found that different tank-bromeliad species hosts distinct macroinvertebrate assemblages, but community composition was particularly less predictable in the smaller tank-bromeliads. Aquatic macroinvertebrates were sorted along a gradient of environmental conditions presented by the set of tank-bromeliad species examined, according to their functional and biological traits. The tank-bromeliad species and the environmental conditions within its tanks were strongly related and equally important in structuring these communities.
5. These results suggest that associations between bromeliads and the fauna inhabiting its tanks are likely a result of the environmental characteristics particular to each bromeliad species.

1. In the Kampinos National Park (Poland), which is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, 47 caught per unit effort samples of Chrysididae were collected in 2000–2006. The aim of the study was to identify the factors promoting the diversity of this rarely studied group of parasitic wasps.
2. A total of 722 specimens belonging to 37 species were recorded, including 18 threatened species and six others recently described as new to the Polish fauna.
3. No chrysidids were recorded in forests, instead they were most abundant on fallow land (i.e. in open habitats), of which those located on dry soils were preferred over humid ones, just as by their endogeic (nesting in the ground) hosts. Many chrysidids that are parasites of hypergeic (nesting above the ground) species were significantly associated with old abandoned wooden buildings, where their hosts use holes in wood for nesting.
4. In addition to the characteristics of the habitat sampled, its position in the land mosaic also determined the diversity of chrysidids. Their lowest abundance and species diversity were recorded in samples from different types of habitat, all located in a uniform environment (i.e. with few other habitats nearby), which limited the diversity of resources available within the flight ranges of chrysidids and their hosts.
5. Our study, thus consistent with the concept that habitat heterogeneity enhances faunal diversity, brings important conclusions for the management of park landscapes: afforestation of open areas (both intentional and resulting from natural succession of plant communities) and removal of old abandoned wooden buildings may limit the land mosaicity and thus faunal diversity.

1. When resources are spatially fragmented, strength of competition between species is diminished by alternative patterns of resource use and parasitoids of the same host species become potential competitors. The coexistence of competing species in spatially fragmented habitats may be achieved, however, due to niche partitioning and alternative responses to patch characteristics. To evaluate responses to resource patterns facilitating coexistence, we examined the resource use patterns of four parasitoid species (Orthopelma mediator, Pteromalus bedeguaris, Torymus bedeguaris and Glyphomerus stigma) of the gall inducer Diplolepis rosae at both landscape and local scales.
2. Parasitoid species of rose gall communities behave differently at landscape and local scales. Parasitism rates and parasitoid incidence showed correlations with local characteristics in some cases, with landscape characteristics in others and, in some other cases with both.
3. Species responses to the examined characteristics depend rather on life history traits of parasitoids than on their frequency within the community. The examined parasitoids responded differently to landscape and local characteristics, while their phenology corresponded with their responses. Species emerging earlier in spring (O. mediator and P. bedeguaris) responded only to local variations, while later emerging species (T. bedeguaris and G. stigma) were sensitive to landscape characteristics as well.
4. Differences between species-specific and overall responses highlight the importance of species characteristics when considering multiparasitoid communities, and support both fine and coarse partitioning between different species coexisting in the community.

1. Exploring conservation and connectivity potential of landscape linkages implies studies on the level of population and community structure.
2. We examined carabid beetle communities within a network of open linear trackways embedded in a plantation forest, in a region where conservation interest focuses on heathland associated species. The relative importance of environmental characteristics such as width, orientation, age of surrounding plantations and vegetation height on species associated with grassland, heathland and sandy habitats (GHS species) was explored in 36 trackway elements.
3. A total of 3554 individuals were collected of which 1465 were GHS specialists. Linear trackways supported important carabid beetle diversity including 17 GHS species of which six are nationally scarce within the UK.
4. The age of adjacent plantations was the most important factor determining community composition of carabids with GHS species favouring trackways surrounded by younger plantations. For predicting number and abundance of GHS species within a subset of trackways surrounded by younger plantations, models incorporating sward height in verges showed the strongest relationships. But results were statistically significant only for predicting abundance of the dominant GHS species Harpalus rufipalpis, which favoured wider trackways with lower vegetation and greater cover of bare sand.
5. Current conservation management using forage harvesting of trackways does not improve habitat quality for GHS carabids. Seemingly continuous network of linear linkages is interrupted by sections of less suitable habitat surrounded by older plantations. Conservation potential could be enhanced by widening of trackways and management by physical disturbance of soil and vegetation.

1. The characteristics of communities are determined by dispersal processes that are driven by landscape structure and species characteristics (traits). Understanding these processes requires a better assessment of the spatial scales that matter to species, based on their traits. This can be particularly addressed in an urban context where habitats are highly fragmented.
2. We assessed the effects of urbanisation intensity on Orthoptera at different spatial scales and focused on two species traits: dispersal ability and habitat specialisation.
3. We recorded Tettiigonidae sounds from running trains along 209 km of five railway lines. As an urbanisation measure, the percentage of impervious surfaces around the railway edges was calculated at 11 spatial scales around the railways. We then tested the effect of urbanisation on species richness, abundance, and traits and determined at which spatial scale the relationship was strongest.
4. Urbanisation had a negative effect on total species richness, abundance and community specialisation. This pattern was stronger at larger spatial scales, and the results differed according to the species' functional traits: mobile species were more sensitive to urbanisation at larger scales than sedentary species, and no scale effect on specialisation was detected.
5. We conclude that insects may respond to landscapes over a broad set of spatial scales and that considering their specific traits is essential in spatial scales studies. Finally, we argue that railway edges can play a role in insect conservation in urban landscapes.

1. While research on the ecosystem services provided by biodiversity is becoming widely embraced as an important tool in conservation, the services provided by saproxylic arthropods – an especially diverse and threatened assemblage dependent on dead or dying wood – remain unmeasured.
2. A conceptual model depicting the reciprocal relationships between dead wood and saproxylic arthropod biodiversity, wildfires, climate change, forest productivity and pest outbreaks is presented. This model suggests that the ecological influence of saproxylic arthropods may extend far beyond their effects on wood decay.
3. Several predictions arising from this view are briefly summarised with the hope of stimulating research that may ultimately help strengthen the argument for saproxylic arthropod conservation.

1. Land-use change and agricultural intensification can strongly affect biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Although many studies investigate management impacts, data on the long-term change of species communities in agroecosystems are scarce.
2. We analysed the long-term change in diversity and composition of ant communities in cacao agroforestry systems in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia and attempted to disentangle the driving factors of this change. Ant communities were resampled in 2009 from sites for which previous surveys had been conducted either in 2001 (the rainforest-poor Palolo region) or 2003 (the rainforest-rich Kulawi region) using insecticide fogging.
3. Ant community composition changed significantly over time in Palolo and Kulawi. The change in ant species richness differed between regions. Species richness increased in Kulawi, probably due to the increasing availability of nest sites and microhabitats as trees grow larger and older. In the Palolo region, species richness decreased, suggesting that the high local intensification and landscape-wide changes may have counteracted the effects of tree age. Changes in ant communities over time were significant, but were more difficult to explain than expected, despite clear difference in management changes within and between regions.
4. The findings suggest that the landscape-scale differences between the two study regions play a more important role for species diversity and its composition than changes in local management. This highlights the importance of long-term studies across contrasting landscapes for better understanding the consequences land-use intensification has on tropical biodiversity.

1. Carabus hungaricus is a ground beetle inhabiting the Pannonian steppes. It is highly endangered by fragmentation and abandonment of its habitat.
2. For five consecutive years, from 2006 to 2010, we used the mark–release-recapture technique in a grid of 270 live-capture pitfall traps to study its population ecology in sandy grasslands on Szentendrei Island in the Northern vicinity of Budapest, Hungary.
3. In total, 3950 individuals of C. hungaricus (1874 females and 2076 males) were marked.
4. Population size was estimated at∼2000 individuals per year; the estimates for females were consistently higher than those for males. The minimum population size was 1317 ± 60.1 individuals in 2007, whereas the maximum was 2169.7 ± 108.8 individuals in 2008.
5. Adults older than a year formed∼32–42% of the population, whereas individuals surviving for 3 years formed∼10%, and those surviving for 4 years formed∼2% of the population. Individuals older than 4 years comprised <1% of the population. Female survival rate was higher than that of male, but the capture rate also differed between sexes.
6. Although the studied population showed considerable fluctuations in the pattern of activity during the 5 years, its size seemed to be relatively stable, underlining the importance of overlapping generations.

1. Saproxylic insect assemblages associated with burned forests are generally abundant and species rich, consisting of a mix of pyrophilous and secondary, opportunistic species depending on time elapsed since disturbance. Life-history traits associated with each group suggest that they may respond differentially to habitat fragmentation caused by salvage logging, with pyrophilous species having a much higher dispersal potential.
2. In a 2-year-old burn highly fragmented by pre- and post-fire logging, we sampled saproxylic beetles in coniferous and broadleaf burned residual stands along a gradient of spatial context including intensity of fragmentation and isolation from source habitat using Lindgren multiple-funnels traps.
3. Beetle assemblages differed in composition between coniferous and broadleaf burned stands, with secondary users dominating the latter. Pyrophilous species increased in abundance with distance from the edge and avoided unburned patches within the fire. Secondary users did not respond negatively to fragmentation or isolation of burned habitats, with one exception, the alleculid Isomira quadristriata (Couper), being overall diverse and abundant throughout the study area regardless of salvage logging prevalence.
4. No deleterious effects of isolation were thus detected in the occurrence patterns of secondary users, even up to 8 km from the edge. Our results suggest that older burns, especially those having some broadleaf cover, are intensively used by non-pyrophilous saproxylic species usually associated with dead wood in green forests and may contribute to maintain broader saproxylic assemblages than originally thought, especially when considering the importance of dead wood volume pulses associated with fire in boreal forests.

1. Dispersal patterns of a beetle inhabiting tree hollows, Osmoderma eremita (Scopoli, 1763) (Coleoptera: Cetoniidae), were studied in a cork oak (Quercus suber) woodland in central Italy, the southernmost part of its distribution range. During 2 years, we used radio telemetry to monitor dispersal of 39 free-ranging individuals (16 males, 23 females).

2. Telemetered beetles spent their lifetime not only inside hollow trees but also in other habitats, such as above or under the ground surface.

3. Beetles were more active at the beginning of the season. Eighty-one per cent of the males and 69% of the females conducted dispersals during their lifetime.

4. The dispersal distance over individuals' lifetime did not differ between sexes. The longest dispersal was conducted by a female that moved 1504 m. Thirty-nine per cent of dispersing individuals reached distances farther than 250 m. Both dispersal rate and range are higher than what has been found in Northern Europe.

5. The population size per tree is low, most of the adults leave their natal tree, and a high predation rate (at least 28%) was observed among dispersing beetles. Therefore, to balance the local extinction risk from single trees, a high density of hollow trees is probably required. It is desirable that suitable trees are concentrated at a spatial scale of a few hundred metres.

1. In French oak high forests, current silvicultural trends include two seemingly opposed practices: shortening the forestry cycle, which contributes to forestry intensification, and lengthening rotations in temporary set-aside stands, called ‘ageing islands’, to favour biodiversity and high-quality large-diameter tree production.

2. To derive the potential effects of these two trends, we studied habitat structure and saproxylic beetles biodiversity along an age gradient in a French oak high forest. Four age classes were surveyed: premature (i) 160/180 years and (ii) 180/200 years, (iii) mature 200/220 years, and (iv) overmature 300-year-old stands. Structural features were noted: deadwood volumes, density of large trees with or without microhabitats, number of cavities, presence of dead large canopy branches, sap droppings and sporophores of saproxylic fungi.

3. Results showed that beetle species richness was positively related to stand age. Globally, overmature stands differed significantly from younger premature and mature forests in species composition and structure. Younger stands tended to show both fewer structural features and lower levels of saproxylic biodiversity. As the forest aged, the overall structural complexity and saproxylic biodiversity increased. However, no individual stand characteristic influenced preferentially biodiversity, and stand age was the best explaining factor.

4. In conclusion, we discuss how (i) shorter rotations in the high forest production cycle and (ii) temporary set-aside forest islands affect forest structure and deadwood-associated assemblages. Shortening rotation length in oak high forests may negatively impact saproxylic biodiversity, whereas temporary set-asides may play a key role for biodiversity conservation in a managed forest matrix.

1. We tested how abundance shifts in lepidopteran species might impact two different aspects of moth community structure within managed forest stands of Morgan-Monroe State Forest, Indiana.

2. Significant changes in species abundance and species richness were observed post-harvest. Sudden eruptions in abundance, however, were not observed at the scale of the regional forest moth metacommunity. The form of the species-abundance distribution within most forest stands did not deviate from the best-fit log-normal model across all three sampling years. Abundance shifts thus appeared to be spatially extensive, low density events.

3. Frequency of stands occupied by early seral moths increased significantly post-harvest. Several species with larvae known to be row crop or forage pests were widespread throughout Morgan-Monroe State Forest (Ostrinia nubilialis, Hypsopygia costalis, Noctua pronuba, Helicoverpa zea) 2 years post-logging. Potential canopy defoliators were negatively affected by time since harvest even in unmanaged stands suggesting that outbreaks may not be expected as a consequence of harvest disturbance.

4. This suggests that pre-harvest abundance is not a good predictor of a species' resilience to forest management. Importantly, weather-related stochastic changes in abundance might obscure forestry effects.

1. The New World Phanaeini are the best known Neotropical dung beetle tribe and a conservation priority among the Scarabaeinae, an ideal focal taxon for biodiversity research and conservation.

2. We compiled a comprehensive distributional database for 39 phanaeine species in Bolivia and assessed patterns of species richness, body size and endemism in relation to abiotic variables and species richness and body mass of medium to large mammals across nine ecoregions.

3. Pair-wise linear regressions indicated that phanaeine richness, mean size and endemism are determined by different factors. In all cases mammal body mass had greater explanatory power than abiotic variables or mammal richness. Phanaeine richness was greater in ecoregions with on average smaller mammals and greater mammal richness. Mean phanaeine size increased with mean body mass of the largest herbivorous and omnivorous mammals. Endemism was greater in ecoregions with on average smaller herbivorous and omnivorous mammals. On average, smaller phanaeines had more restricted distributions than larger species; ecoregional endemism and mean body size were negatively correlated.

4. Large phanaeines probably depend on large mammals to provide adequate food resources. Greater richness of smaller mammal species may allow for greater temporal and spatial resource partitioning and therefore greater phanaeine species richness. Low numbers of large mammal species may favour the persistence of geographically restricted phanaeine species by reducing interspecific competition with larger, more geographically widespread and presumably dominant phanaeines.

5. Cerrado, Southwest Amazonia and Yungas are priority ecoregions for phanaeine conservation due to high total and endemic species richness.

1. We studied the habitat requirements of a vulnerable butterfly, Erebia aethiops, in a grassland-forest mosaic within a nature reserve. This species inhabits seemingly abundant habitats such as forest edges, but it is declining in many parts of Europe.

2. We analysed mark-recapture data, focusing on the effects of distinct vegetation structures, nectar sources and management regimes on population density and mobility.

3. Adult E. aethiops preferred abandoned grasslands and small open enclaves surrounded by forest; i.e. highly heterogeneous habitats. Male densities were higher in sparse woodlots, female densities at grassland patches. These intersexual differences in habitat use emphasise the need for heterogeneous vegetation.

4. Like other inhabitants of traditional woodlands, E. aethiops suffers from canopy closure, leading to its retreat to transitional structures such as forest edges or abandoned grasslands. Such preferences are in conflict with regular grassland management, necessary for conserving many other grassland organisms. Therefore, sparse woodlands containing forest free enclaves should be restored to protect this and other woodland organisms.

1. Aquatic habitats and biotic assemblages in subalpine headwaters are sensitive to climate and human impacts. Understanding biotic responses to such perturbations and the contribution of high-elevation headwaters to riverine biodiversity requires the assessment of assemblage composition among habitat types. We compared aquatic insect assemblages among headwater stream segment types in relict glaciated subalpine basins in Mt. Rainier National Park, Washington, USA.

2. Aquatic insects were collected during summer and autumn in three headwater basins. In each basin, three different stream segment types were sampled: colluvial groundwater sources, alluvial lake inlets, and cascade-bedrock lake outlets. Ward's hierarchical cluster analysis revealed high β diversity in aquatic insect assemblages, and non-metric multidimensional scaling indicated that spatial and temporal patterns in assemblage composition differed among headwater stream segment types. Aquatic insect assemblages showed more fidelity to stream segment types than to individual basins, and the principal environmental variables associated with assemblage structure were temperature and substrate.

3. Indicator species analyses identified specific aquatic insects associated with each stream segment type. Several rare and potentially endemic aquatic insect taxa were present, including the recently described species, Lednia borealis (Baumann and Kondratieff).

4. Our results indicate that aquatic insect assemblages in relict glaciated subalpine headwaters were strongly differentiated among stream segment types. These results illustrate the contribution of headwaters to riverine biodiversity and emphasise the importance of these habitats for monitoring biotic responses to climate change. Monitoring biotic assemblages in high-elevation headwaters is needed to prevent the potential loss of unique and sensitive biota.

2. We used emergence traps to sample saproxylic beetle assemblages in oak and pine large-diameter (>20 cm) logs and stumps and compared the assemblages from the two sources.

3. With 64–84.5% of the species pool in oak and pine, respectively, stumps definitely constituted a suitable substratum for many saproxylic species in managed forests. Higher species density suggested that stumps are more diverse habitats than logs. Stumps also host rare species and natural enemies of bark beetles. For both tree species, the assemblage composition was significantly different between logs and stumps. The dissimilarity between substratum types was predominantly due to turnover, especially for oak.

4. Our results revealed that not only do stumps constitute a substitute for some log-dwelling species; they also provide a suitable breeding substratum for many species that may be at risk in case of massive exportation of stumps for bioenergy purposes.

2. Previous studies have found that the remnant Pennsylvania population is genetically differentiated from populations in the west, and have suggested the designation of separate eastern and western subspecies. However, the historical pattern of genetic variation from which the current distinctness of the Pennsylvania population has arisen was not known, nor was the relationship with the remnant Virginia population.

3. We amplified and sequenced two mitochondrial loci (COI/II and ND4) from preserved specimens to infer historical patterns of genetic variation in this species, and we used non-lethally obtained tissue samples to assess the relationship of the two eastern remnant populations.

4. We found very consistent patterns between the two loci. Both had a very shallow haplotype network with few mutations separating most haplotypes. At both loci, we observed distinct groups of haplotypes in the western and far eastern (i.e. New England) portions of the range; a region of transition was centred on Ohio, western Pennsylvania, and the Virginias, where both groups, and intermediate haplotypes, were represented.

5. Importantly, the extant Virginia population shared haplotypes with western populations of S. idalia and not with the extant Pennsylvania population. We discuss the implications of this result for the taxonomy and translocations/introductions of the species.

2. We sampled both butterflies and flowers on ski-pistes, in adjacent forests and in the nearest pastures at three sites in the Aosta Valley (north-western Italian Alps).

3. Transect counts showed that butterflies were more abundant on ski-pistes (and forests) than in pastures. However, species richness and diversity were lower on ski-pistes than on nearby pastures. Flower abundance was higher, but flower richness and diversity were lower on ski-pistes than in pastures. Multivariate regression trees indicated that butterfly abundance was positively associated with flower abundance and butterfly diversity was positively associated with flower diversity.

4. We conclude that: (i) butterfly abundance on ski-pistes was higher because in mid-summer these grassland strips were more abundant in flowers than nearby pastures and (ii) butterfly diversity was lower both because of the lower flower diversity and because of the higher isolation and/or smaller area of ski-pistes by comparison with pastures.

5. In the Alps, several grassland butterfly species are of conservation concern. Ski-pistes are probably sub-optimal habitats for butterflies. Nevertheless, within a natural reforestation framework, they may be useful to butterfly conservation, on condition that they are completely re-vegetated and that grass cover of ski-pistes are favoured and maintained to facilitate their colonisation.

2. Filter paper is routinely used for DNA storage in other biological disciplines (e.g. medicine), but is not widely used in entomology.

3. A system for room temperature storage of DNA with microscope slide-mounted voucher material uses filter paper in conjunction with the cleared voucher specimen.

4. The viability of filter paper for DNA storage is demonstrated through various time intervals. Either a solution of the cell lysis buffer or purified DNA can be stored on filter paper. Both COI and COII were sequenced from filter paper; EF-1α was attempted, but results were partially successful.

5. The filter paper system allows for DNA storage directly with the curated specimen, thus facilitating its accessibility.

6. The storage of DNA on filter paper with specimens in museum collections could reduce the need or cost for cryopreservation equipment.

7. DNA on filter paper facilitates international and local transport of DNA research material for subsequent study.

2. Our study describes the biotypes and symbiotic bacterial communities of B. tabaci sampled in three West African countries, Burkina Faso, Benin, and Togo. A total of 527 individuals were collected from seven cultivated host plants.

3. In the 20 localities studied, we found the same three biotypes AnSL, ASL, and Q previously detected in Burkina Faso. These biotypes display a specific pattern of geographical distribution influenced by the host plant species. In Benin and Togo, the ASL and AnSL biotypes were predominant, while in Burkina Faso, the Q biotype was dominant, with two sub-groups, Q1 and Q3 (recorded to date only in this country), and ASL individuals found in sympatry with Q1 individuals in some localities. As previously reported, each biotype and each genetic group harbours a specific community of symbiotic bacteria.

2. We compared butterfly assemblages using standardised Pollard Walks in the understory of closed-canopy lowland tropical rainforests across three biogeographical regions: Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama; Khao Chong (KHC), Thailand; and Wanang (WAN), Papua New Guinea.

3. The length and duration of transects, their spatial autocorrelation, and number of surveys per year represented important methodological factors that strongly influenced estimates of butterfly abundance. Of these, the effect of spatial autocorrelation was most difficult to mitigate across study sites.

4. Butterfly abundance and faunal composition were best explained by air temperature, elevation, rainfall, wind velocity, and human disturbance at BCI and KHC. In the absence of weather data at WAN, duration of transects and number of forest gaps accounted for most of the explained variance, which was rather low in all cases (<33%).

5. Adequate monitoring of the abundance of common butterflies was achieved at the 50 ha BCI plot, with three observers walking each of 10 transects of 500 m for 30 min each, during each of four surveys per year. These data may be standardised further after removing outliers of temperature and rainfall. Practical procedures are suggested to implement global monitoring of rainforest butterflies with Pollard Walks.

2. This 2 year study investigated the relative benefits of grassland field margin treatments (Fenced only, Rotavated, and Reseeded (with a grass and wildflower mixture)) on the abundance and taxon richness of five arthropod trophic groups (detritivores, herbivores, predators, parasitoids and hyperparasitoids) from the orders Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Araneae.

3. The taxon richness and abundance of all trophic groups (with the exception of herbivore abundance) was greater in fenced field margin treatments than in the adjacent grazed field, particularly by the final sampling occasion. However, there were seasonal differences, with abundance and taxon richness generally greater in August than in June. Only detritivores and herbivores responded to the individual fenced field margin treatments. The botanically more species rich, rotavated and reseeded treatments, had greater detritivore and herbivore richness and abundance than the fenced only treatments.

4. Community structure analysis indicated that the grazed (within) field and fenced field margins had two distinct communities for all trophic groups, demonstrating the conservation value of the margins within intensively managed agricultural grasslands.

5. The current Irish agri-environment scheme requires fencing of field margins. Our results highlight how this relatively simple measure can benefit arthropod conservation and functional biodiversity. This may in turn benefit farm productivity through potentially improved nutrient cycling and natural pest control.

2. In the current study, we examine patterns of insect co-occurrence in 23 low-gradient, sandy-bottom coastal streams of the Gulf of Mexico. Focusing our attention on five commonly collected orders in these sites, we ask two fundamental questions about the community: (i) Are patterns of insect co-occurrence non-random? (ii) If these patterns are non-random, are they consistent with the expectations of a community structured largely by abiotic conditions, biotic conditions (e.g. species interaction) or both?

3. Using a series of null models, we found a strong pattern of negative co-occurrence (segregation) for both genera and species when all stream sites were considered. When we partially controlled for the influence of abiotic conditions by examining a subset of streams with similar abiotic conditions, both species and genera showed a very significant pattern of aggregation. These results therefore suggest that abiotic conditions act as a strong filter, influencing the patterns of co-occurrence for both genera and species.

4. Comparisons of co-occurrence patterns between the species-level and genus-level analyses suggested similar degrees of segregation. Thus, no compelling evidence of competition influencing insect distributions among streams was found.

2. A survey of the chalcid wasp parasitoid community attacking the chestnut gallwasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus was carried out over a 5-year period at 26 sites in north-western Italy. More than 415 000 galls were collected and more than 10 000 parasitoid specimens emerged. Twenty-seven parasitoid species belonging to six families (Eurytomidae, Pteromalidae, Torymidae, Eupelmidae, Ormyridae, Eulophidae) were identified using morphological and molecular methods; seventeen are new records for the parasitoid community associated with D. kuriphilus in Italy. The morphospecies complexes Megastigmus dorsalis, Eupelmus urozonus, E. annulatus, and Eurytoma pistaciae were the dominant species; another six morphospecies were encountered regularly but at low frequency; and 13 species were recorded only occasionally. The attack rate of any individual parasitoid species was low, although the more common species appeared to be increasing their use of this novel host.

3. Biases observed in the sex ratios of parasitoids emerging from D. kuriphilus galls suggest that parasitoid individuals are making life-history decisions to take advantage of the high abundance of this host. Overall, these patterns imply that there is an ongoing transfer of parasitoids between oak and chestnut galls, and hence a high potential for this invading species to have a major impact on native oak gall communities via indirect competition mediated through shared parasitoids.

2. Spiders were sampled using density- and abundance-activity-dependent methods. Data on physical characteristics and species composition of plants revealed gradients in vegetation, driven by distinct intra-ecosystem plant communities. Effects of vegetation on spider diversity and composition were assessed through linear mixed-effects models. Redundancy analysis was used to determine and visualise the spider species–level response to gradients in plant compositions.

3. There was a positive relationship between plant diversity and spider diversity, while the effects of tussock cover varied with spider taxa. Overall, physical structure and species composition of vegetation had effects on the abundance of a similar number of spider species and families.

4. Gradients in vegetation were matched to gradients in spider communities, whose diversity and composition varied according to their habitat preference. The family Orsolobidae was associated with wetland vegetation, and Linyphiidae with shrubs. The abundance of certain spider families and species, such as Lycosidae and Anoteropsis hilaris, was consistently affected by vegetation.

5. Environmental factors, such as soil moisture, may affect plant species composition and physical structure in tussock grasslands, which in turn determine spider assemblages. Lycosidae were identified as potential indicators of structural changes in tussock grassland plants and could be valuable for ecological monitoring in conservation management.

2. We investigate whether the decline in the size of the overwintering population can be attributed to a decline in monarch production owing to a loss of milkweeds in agricultural fields in the Midwest. We estimate Midwest annual monarch production using data on the number of monarch eggs per milkweed plant for milkweeds in different habitats, the density of milkweeds in different habitats, and the area occupied by those habitats on the landscape.

3. We estimate that there has been a 58% decline in milkweeds on the Midwest landscape and an 81% decline in monarch production in the Midwest from 1999 to 2010. Monarch production in the Midwest each year was positively correlated with the size of the subsequent overwintering population in Mexico. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that a loss of agricultural milkweeds is a major contributor to the decline in the monarch population.

4. The smaller monarch population size that has become the norm will make the species more vulnerable to other conservation threats.

2. We analysed a regionalised distribution of the 196 butterfly and 68 dragonfly taxa of Romania with cluster analyses and principal component analyses, and worked out the different faunal regions and faunal elements for this country.

3. We obtained a clear regional structuring for the butterflies (e.g. Transylvanian Basin, Carpathians, SE Romania, W/SW Romania), but only a vertical structuring in the dragonflies from the Danube lowlands to the elevations of the Carpathians.

4. This structure implies a recent distribution trigger based on ecological and climatic constraints in dragonflies with water and energy availability being of high importance.

5. The more ancient biogeographical pattern in butterflies reflects the different biogeographical elements of Europe and the connections of the Carpathian regions to the Balkan Peninsula and the Eastern European steppes, with energy being of considerably higher importance for butterfly occurrences than water availability.

2. Kirkaldyia deyrolli individuals were collected and their δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values were measured. The δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values of periphyton and particulate organic matter, the basal food sources in lentic ecosystems of rice fields, were also measured to estimate the trophic position of K. deyrolli. When individual isotopic signatures of the whole body were compared with those of their middle leg tarsus, we found strong correlations between them for both δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C. To estimate their trophic position without killing individuals, we constructed a regression model incorporating their middle leg tarsus’s isotopic signatures and their body size as explanatory variables. This non-lethal method revealed that K. deyrolli showed great individual variation in its δ¹⁵N which is a proxy of trophic position, ranging from 5.60‰ to 8.11‰.

3. To evaluate the negative effects of our non-lethal method on the fitness of K. deyrolli, we examined how the removal of the middle leg tarsus affected reproductive performance under laboratory conditions. A comparison between the manipulated and unmanipulated individuals revealed that the removal treatment did not have any negative effects on female clutch size or egg hatchability for males.

4. In conclusion, stable isotope analysis of the middle leg tarsus of K. deyrolli is useful for estimating its trophic position without lethal or any negative fitness effects.

2. To provide evidence for this discussion, we compiled saproxylic beetle data from 1115 flight-interception traps in eight countries and addressed two main questions: (i) what percentage of central European species can be expected in beech-dominated forests? and (ii) which are the important spatial scales for the conservation of biodiversity in beech-dominated forests?

3. We included six spatial scales in our analysis: among traps, forest stands, forest sites, low/high elevations, oligo/eutrophic soils, and European bioregions.

4. By extrapolating species numbers, we showed that 70% of the central European saproxylic beetle species can be expected in beech-dominated forests. Multiplicative β-diversity partitioning revealed the forest site level as the most important diversity scale for species richness, particularly for red-listed and rare species, followed by elevation and bioregion.

5. We conclude that beech-dominated forests form a useful umbrella for the high species diversity of central European saproxylic beetles. Conservation activities, such as protecting areas or increasing dead wood, should be undertaken in as many forest sites as possible, at different elevations, and in different bioregions. For this, the Natura 2000 net may provide the most useful template.

2. We analysed population characteristics and dispersal of the butterfly Byasa impediens in eleven patches of a fragmented subtropical forest in Western China.

3. In an area covering 30 km², we found an unexpected high dispersal capacity of more than 5 km, and estimated a mean dispersal distance of 1 km according to the negative exponential function. However, the inverse power function gave a better fit and predicted a reasonably large fraction of long-distance displacements: 4% of all movements were estimated to exceed 5 km.

4. In spite of the high level of fragmentation and small sizes of some patches, we did not observe extinction or (re)colonisation events. Matching dispersal ability with the spatial grain of the resource patches in the landscape is seen as a major cause. In addition, persistence, emigration and immigration of individuals were exclusively affected by the amount of larval host plants, nectar plants and forest cover.

5. Our study indicates the importance of long-distance dispersal and shows that species with large dispersal abilities and a somewhat broader dietary niche, such as B. impediens, can sustain in fragmented areas if patch quality is sufficient.

6. We suggest that conservation action may not only focus on particularly endangered species but also on relatively common, but often endemic, insect species. This is of particular concern given the global dominance of insects and their importance for ecosystem services, especially in an area of constantly increasing demands of agricultural products.

2. We examined the seasonality of population fluctuations in a Bornean rainforest phytophagous scarabaeid assemblage (six species of Melolonthinae and seven of Rutelinae). We also investigated effects on abundances of these insects of irregularly fluctuating environmental changes, such as short-term rainfall, and community-level leaf flushing and flowering of canopy trees. Scarabaeids were collected over 6 years by monthly light-trapping.

3. Eight scarabaeid species had clear seasonality in occurrence and abundance. Seasonal trends were synchronised across the eight species; their monthly catches peaked from March to May and were nearly zero in other months. An analysis of correlations between environmental changes and insect abundances suggested that short-term changes in rainfall affected the synchrony.

4. In contrast, fluctuations in abundances of five other scarabaeid species were unrelated to calendar seasons. In one of the five scarabaeids, which is a flower-visiting species, the patterns in population fluctuation strongly correlated with flowering changes. In the remaining four species, no correlations were observed between environmental changes and population fluctuation patterns.

5. While previous studies have demonstrated that aseasonal patterns in population fluctuations are common in various insect assemblages in Southeast Asian rainforests, we show that clear seasonality is prevalent for the phytophagous scarabaeid assemblage.

2. The impact of short sward (<8 cm) cattle grazing on the ground dwelling invertebrate community was assessed on an English inter-tidal upper salt marsh using pitfall traps. Abundance, species richness, functional group structure, abundance of coastal specialists, environmental factors that influence invertebrate habitat choice and food web composition were compared for grazed and un-grazed marsh.

3. In total, 90 000 invertebrates were sampled. Predatory, zoophagus and detritivorous Coleoptera were significantly more abundant on the un-grazed marsh. In contrast, predatory Hemiptera and Araneae were significantly more abundant on the grazed marsh. Sheet weaver spiders were significantly more abundant on the grazed marsh, foliage running hunters and space web builders more abundant on the un-grazed marsh. Most inter-tidal coastal specialist species exhibited clear habitat preference for the grazed marsh. Total species richness was not significantly different between grazing treatments.

4. Linear direct gradient analysis showed that two environmental variables influenced by grazing intensity, soil temperature and vegetation height, significantly explained the composition of invertebrate functional groups. Larger bodied invertebrates dominated the un-grazed food web.

5. We conclude that both short sward cattle grazed and un-grazed saltmarsh habitat should be maintained to maximise invertebrate abundance and diversity and provide suitable habitat for coastal specialists.