Lead
Abstract
The article contains sections titled:
| 1. | Introduction |
| 2. | Properties |
| 3. | Occurrence |
| 4. | Production |
| 4.1. | Ore Concentration |
| 4.2. | Smelting |
| 4.2.1. | Sintering Reduction Process |
| 4.2.1.1. | Downdraft Sintering |
| 4.2.1.2. | Updraft Sintering |
| 4.2.1.3. | Products of Sinter Roasting |
| 4.2.2. | Reduction in the Blast Furnace |
| 4.2.2.1. | Process Description |
| 4.2.2.2. | Lead Blast Furnaces |
| 4.2.2.3. | Products of the Lead Blast Furnace |
| 4.2.2.4. | Imperial Smelting Process |
| 4.2.3. | Advances in Sinter Plant–Blast Furnace/ISF Operations |
| 4.3. | Roast Reaction Processes |
| 4.4. | Direct Smelting Reduction Processes |
| 4.4.1. | Oxygen Flash Smelting |
| 4.4.1.1. | Kivcet Process |
| 4.4.1.2. | Top‐Blown Rotary Converter (TBRC) |
| 4.4.1.3. | Outokumpu Process |
| 4.4.2. | Air–Slag Bath Smelting, Ausmelt/ISA Smelt furnace |
| 4.4.3. | Oxygen–Slag Bath Smelting, QSL Process |
| 4.4.3.1. | Products of Direct Smelting |
| 4.5. | Other Lead Processes |
| 5. | Refining of Lead Bullion |
| 5.1. | Pyrometallurgical Refining |
| 5.1.1. | Decoppering |
| 5.1.2. | Removal of Arsenic, Tin, and Antimony |
| 5.1.3. | Removal of Noble Metals |
| 5.1.4. | Dezincing |
| 5.1.5. | Debismuthizing |
| 5.1.6. | Final Refining and Casting of Lead |
| 5.1.7. | Processing of Intermediate Products of Pyrometallurgical Refining |
| 5.2. | Electrolytic Refining of Lead Bullion |
| 6. | Recovery of Secondary Lead from Scrap Materials |
| 6.1. | Battery Types and Composition |
| 6.2. | Preparation of Input Material for Secondary Smelting |
| 6.3. | Smelting of Battery Scrap Materials |
| 6.4. | Refining of Lead Bullion from Secondary Lead Production |
| 7. | Uses |
| 8. | Economic Aspects |
| 9. | Toxicology and Occupational Health |
| 9.1. | Sources of Lead Exposure |
| 9.1.1. | Drinking Water |
| 9.1.2. | Atmosphere |
| 9.1.3. | Soil |
| 9.1.4. | Diet |
| 9.1.5. | Consumer Products |
| 9.1.6. | Occupational Exposure |
| 9.2. | Absorption and Excretion |
| 9.3. | Effects |
| 9.3.1. | Acute Effects |
| 9.3.2. | Effects from Repeated Exposures |
| 9.3.2.1. | Hematological Effects |
| 9.3.2.2. | Neurological Effects |
| 9.3.2.3. | Cardiovascular and Renal Effects |
| 9.3.2.4. | Reproductive Effects |
| 9.3.2.5. | Carcinogenicity |
| 9.4. | Indices for Monitoring Lead Exposure |
| 9.4.1. | Lead in Blood |
| 9.4.2. | Teeth, Hair, and Bone |
| 10. | Control of Lead Emissions |



