Volume 27, Issue 29
Research Article

An R2 statistic for fixed effects in the linear mixed model

Lloyd J. Edwards

Corresponding Author

E-mail address: LloydEdwards@unc.edu

Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, CB# 7420, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, U.S.A.

Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, CB# 7420, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, U.S.A.Search for more papers by this author
Keith E. Muller

Division of Biostatistics, Department of Epidemiology and Health Policy Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, U.S.A.

Search for more papers by this author
Russell D. Wolfinger

SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC 27513, U.S.A.

Search for more papers by this author
Bahjat F. Qaqish

Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, CB# 7420, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, U.S.A.

Search for more papers by this author
Oliver Schabenberger

SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC 27513, U.S.A.

Search for more papers by this author
First published: 24 September 2008
Citations: 265

Abstract

Statisticians most often use the linear mixed model to analyze Gaussian longitudinal data. The value and familiarity of the R2 statistic in the linear univariate model naturally creates great interest in extending it to the linear mixed model. We define and describe how to compute a model R2 statistic for the linear mixed model by using only a single model. The proposed R2 statistic measures multivariate association between the repeated outcomes and the fixed effects in the linear mixed model. The R2 statistic arises as a 1–1 function of an appropriate F statistic for testing all fixed effects (except typically the intercept) in a full model. The statistic compares the full model with a null model with all fixed effects deleted (except typically the intercept) while retaining exactly the same covariance structure. Furthermore, the R2 statistic leads immediately to a natural definition of a partial R2 statistic. A mixed model in which ethnicity gives a very small p‐value as a longitudinal predictor of blood pressure (BP) compellingly illustrates the value of the statistic. In sharp contrast to the extreme p‐value, a very small R2 , a measure of statistical and scientific importance, indicates that ethnicity has an almost negligible association with the repeated BP outcomes for the study. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Number of times cited according to CrossRef: 265

  • undefined, 2020 IEEE Winter Applications of Computer Vision Workshops (WACVW), 10.1109/WACVW50321.2020.9096945, (173-182), (2020).
  • Motivational effects on empathic choices, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104010, 90, (104010), (2020).
  • Emotional Awareness in Daily Life: Exploring Its Potential Role in Repetitive Thinking and Healthy Coping, Behavior Therapy, 10.1016/j.beth.2020.04.010, (2020).
  • Gender at Work Across Nations: Men and Women Working in Male‐Dominated and Female‐Dominated Occupations are Differentially Associated with Agency and Communion, Journal of Social Issues, 10.1111/josi.12390, 76, 3, (484-511), (2020).
  • Assessment of sediment penetrability as an integrated in situ measure of intertidal softsediment conditions, Marine Ecology Progress Series, 10.3354/meps13428, 648, (67-78), (2020).
  • Domain‐General Learning and Memory Substrates of Reading Acquisition, Mind, Brain, and Education, 10.1111/mbe.12234, 14, 2, (176-186), (2020).
  • Effects of verbal instructions and physical threat removal prior to extinction training on the return of conditioned fear, Scientific Reports, 10.1038/s41598-020-57934-7, 10, 1, (2020).
  • ERP evidence suggests that confrontation with deterministic statements aligns subsequent other‐ and self‐relevant error processing, Psychophysiology, 10.1111/psyp.13556, 57, 8, (2020).
  • Metacommunity Structure of Stream Insects across Three Hierarchical Spatial scales, Ecology and Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.6103, 10, 6, (2874-2884), (2020).
  • Right between the eyes: Corrugator muscle activity tracks the changing pleasantness of repeated slow stroking touch, Physiology & Behavior, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112903, (112903), (2020).
  • Production of detergent stable thermophilic alkaline protease by Bacillus licheniformis ALW1, Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101631, (101631), (2020).
  • Correlation of Quantitative Myasthenia Gravis and Myasthenia Gravis Activities of Daily Living scales in the MGTX study, Muscle & Nerve, 10.1002/mus.26910, 62, 2, (261-266), (2020).
  • Relational body image: Preliminary evidence that body image varies within a person from one specific relationship to another, Body Image, 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.06.006, 34, (221-232), (2020).
  • Effects associated with the use of healthcare for eating disorders by women in the community: a longitudinal cohort study, BMJ Open, 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-033986, 10, 8, (e033986), (2020).
  • Neurophysiological biomarkers of response inhibition and the familial risk for borderline personality disorder, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110115, (110115), (2020).
  • Enhanced emotional and motor responses to live versus videotaped dynamic facial expressions, Scientific Reports, 10.1038/s41598-020-73826-2, 10, 1, (2020).
  • Ghrelin Induces Place Preference for Social Interaction in the Larger Peer of a Male Rat Pair, Neuroscience, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.01.027, (2020).
  • Inter-individual and age-dependent variability in simulated electric fields induced by conventional transcranial electrical stimulation, NeuroImage, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117413, (117413), (2020).
  • Differing, multiscale landscape effects on genetic diversity and differentiation in eastern chipmunks, Heredity, 10.1038/s41437-020-0293-0, (2020).
  • The experience of smoking in recovery settings: an ecological momentary assessment pilot study, Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 10.1080/1533256X.2020.1710080, (1-14), (2020).
  • Effect of Physical Fatigue Elicited by Continuous and Intermittent Exercise on Motor Imagery Ability, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 10.1080/02701367.2019.1691709, (1-14), (2020).
  • Responses to Sexual Advances and Satisfaction in Romantic Relationships: Is Yes Good and No Bad?, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550619888884, (194855061988888), (2020).
  • Motor Imagery Training During Arm Immobilization Prevents Corticomotor Idling: An EEG Resting-State Analysis, Brain Topography, 10.1007/s10548-020-00763-8, (2020).
  • Alternative Quantifications of Landscape Complementation to Model Gene Flow in Banded Longhorn Beetles [Typocerus v. velutinus (Olivier)], Frontiers in Genetics, 10.3389/fgene.2020.00307, 11, (2020).
  • Diminished responses to bodily threat and blunted interoception in suicide attempters, eLife, 10.7554/eLife.51593, 9, (2020).
  • A Prospective Investigation of the Decision to Open Up a Romantic Relationship, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10.1177/1948550619897157, (194855061989715), (2020).
  • Association of Epigenetic Age and p16INK4a With Markers of T-Cell Composition in a Healthy Cohort, The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 10.1093/gerona/glaa108, (2020).
  • Use of the Bogus Pipeline Increases Sexual Concordance in Women But Not Men, Archives of Sexual Behavior, 10.1007/s10508-020-01737-4, (2020).
  • Formal String Instrument Training in a Class Setting Enhances Cognitive and Sensorimotor Development of Primary School Children, Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10.3389/fnins.2020.00567, 14, (2020).
  • Comparing static and dynamic measures of affect intensity and affective lability: do they measure the same thing?, Motivation and Emotion, 10.1007/s11031-020-09840-8, (2020).
  • The Challenges of Green Marketing Communication: Effective Communication to Environmentally Conscious but Skeptical Consumers, Designs, 10.3390/designs4030025, 4, 3, (25), (2020).
  • From brooding to detachment: Rumination longitudinally predicts an increase in depersonalization and derealisation, Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 10.1111/papt.12279, 0, 0, (2020).
  • Theory of Mind Following the Violation of Strong and Weak Prior Beliefs, Cerebral Cortex, 10.1093/cercor/bhaa263, (2020).
  • Simulating Honey Bee Large‐Scale Colony Feeding Studies Using the BEEHAVE Model—Part II: Analysis of Overwintering Outcomes, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 10.1002/etc.4844, 0, 0, (2020).
  • 5‐Nonyloxytryptamine oxalate–embedded collagen–laminin scaffolds augment functional recovery after spinal cord injury in mice, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 10.1111/nyas.14279, 1465, 1, (99-116), (2019).
  • I don't fit, so I blame you?—Influence of regulatory focus and fit on emotion generation and regulation in single and group context, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10.1111/jasp.12642, 50, 2, (82-103), (2019).
  • Mood regulation and relationship quality predict change in homesickness during college, British Journal of Psychology, 10.1111/bjop.12386, 111, 1, (55-69), (2019).
  • Child-Centered Nutrition Phrases Plus Repeated Exposure Increase Preschoolers’ Consumption of Healthful Foods, but Not Liking or Willingness to Try, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 10.1016/j.jneb.2019.02.011, 51, 5, (519-527), (2019).
  • Breathing with the mind: Effects of motor imagery on breath-hold performance, Physiology & Behavior, 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112583, (112583), (2019).
  • Capturing intranational cultural variation in international business research: Microsocietal differences in collectivism across Turkey, Journal of World Business, 10.1016/j.jwb.2019.101020, 54, 6, (101020), (2019).
  • Microbial valorization of shrimp byproducts via the production of thermostable chitosanase and antioxidant chitooligosaccharides, Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101269, (101269), (2019).
  • Prediction Models for Voriconazole Pharmacokinetics Based on Pharmacogenetics: An Exploratory Study in Spanish population, International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2019.06.026, (2019).
  • Reconstructing a model for gravity at large distances from dark matter density profiles, Physical Review D, 10.1103/PhysRevD.99.124006, 99, 12, (2019).
  • Winds of change, developing a non-target plant bioassay employing field-based pesticide drift exposure: A case study with atrazine, Science of The Total Environment, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.411, 678, (239-252), (2019).
  • Nitrous oxide emissions increase exponentially with organic N rate from cover crops and applied poultry litter, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 10.1016/j.agee.2018.10.023, 272, (165-174), (2019).
  • Effects of Action Observation and Action Observation Combined with Motor Imagery on Maximal Isometric Strength, Neuroscience, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.08.025, (2019).
  • Single step hydrolysis of chitin using thermophilic immobilized exochitinase on carrageenan-guar gum gel beads, Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101281, (101281), (2019).
  • Neural Indices of Vowel Discrimination in Monolingual and Bilingual Infants and Children, Ear and Hearing, 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000726, 40, 6, (1376-1390), (2019).
  • Adaptive thinking: Can adaptive dispositional attributions protect against the harmful effects of maladaptive situational attributions?, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101620, (101620), (2019).
  • Economic production of thermo-active endo β-mannanase for the removal of food stain and production of antioxidant manno-oligosaccharides, Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101387, (101387), (2019).
  • undefined, 2019 International Conference on Content-Based Multimedia Indexing (CBMI), 10.1109/CBMI.2019.8877402, (1-6), (2019).
  • Alexithymia – Not autism – is associated with frequency of social interactions in adults, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 10.1016/j.brat.2019.103477, (103477), (2019).
  • Improvement of Lactobacillus plantarum for the enhanced production of bacteriocin like inhibitory substance using combinatorial approach, Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101386, (101386), (2019).
  • Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging maps neural damage in the EAE model of multiple sclerosis, NeuroImage, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116406, (116406), (2019).
  • A coefficient of determination (R2) for generalized linear mixed models, Biometrical Journal, 10.1002/bimj.201800270, 61, 4, (860-872), (2019).
  • Integrated analysis of genomics, longitudinal metabolomics, and Alzheimer's risk factors among 1,111 cohort participants, Genetic Epidemiology, 10.1002/gepi.22211, 43, 6, (657-674), (2019).
  • Tracking the acquisition of anticipatory postural adjustments during a bimanual load‐lifting task: A MEG study, Human Brain Mapping, 10.1002/hbm.24571, 40, 10, (2955-2966), (2019).
  • Heterogeneity of colon and rectum cancer incidence across 612 SEER counties, 2000–2014, International Journal of Cancer, 10.1002/ijc.31776, 144, 8, (1786-1795), (2019).
  • Social effects of territorial neighbours on the timing of spring breeding in North American red squirrels, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 10.1111/jeb.13437, 32, 6, (559-571), (2019).
  • Interpersonal synchrony feels good but impedes self-regulation of affect, Scientific Reports, 10.1038/s41598-019-50960-0, 9, 1, (2019).
  • Using a comparative approach to investigate the relationship between landscape and genetic connectivity among woodland salamander populations, Conservation Genetics, 10.1007/s10592-019-01207-y, (2019).
  • Clusters of Glycemic Response to Oral Glucose Tolerance Tests Explain Multivariate Metabolic and Anthropometric Outcomes of Bariatric Surgery in Obese Patients, Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10.3390/jcm8081091, 8, 8, (1091), (2019).
  • The Role of Physiology and Voice in Emotion Perception During Social Stress, Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 10.1007/s10919-019-00311-4, (2019).
  • Genetic diversity increases with depth in red gorgonian populations of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, PeerJ, 10.7717/peerj.6794, 7, (e6794), (2019).
  • The Relationship Between Sexual Functioning and Sexual Concordance in Women, Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 10.1080/0092623X.2018.1518881, (1-17), (2019).
  • Higher perceived stress is associated with lower cortisol concentrations but higher salivary interleukin-1beta in socially evaluated cold pressor test, Stress, 10.1080/10253890.2019.1660872, (1-26), (2019).
  • Interminority Contact and Solidarity under Conflict: Evidence from the Hungarian and Roma Minorities in Romania, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10.1080/01973533.2019.1652179, (1-14), (2019).
  • Increased preparation time reduces, but does not abolish, action history bias of saccadic eye movements, Journal of Neurophysiology, 10.1152/jn.00512.2018, (2019).
  • Global and Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression Models for Modeling PM2.5 in Heilongjiang, China from 2015 to 2018, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10.3390/ijerph16245107, 16, 24, (5107), (2019).
  • Ability to move between self‐states and emotional experiencing and processing as predictors of symptomatic change, Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 10.1111/papt.12256, 0, 0, (2019).
  • New Recommendations on the Use of R-Squared Differences in Multilevel Model Comparisons, Multivariate Behavioral Research, 10.1080/00273171.2019.1660605, (1-32), (2019).
  • Behavioral measures of attention and cognitive control during a new auditory working memory paradigm, Behavior Research Methods, 10.3758/s13428-019-01308-z, (2019).
  • Caregiver Attendance as a Quality Indicator in the Implementation of Multiple Evidence-Based Practices for Children, Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 10.1080/15374416.2019.1683851, (1-15), (2019).
  • Enhancement of self compassion in psychotherapy: The role of therapists’ interventions, Psychotherapy Research, 10.1080/10503307.2019.1650979, (1-14), (2019).
  • You seem tired, but so am I: Willpower theories and intention to provide support in romantic relationships, Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10.1177/0265407519877238, (026540751987723), (2019).
  • Beta-band Motor Unit Coherence and Nonlinear Surface EMG Features of the First Dorsal Interosseous Muscle Vary with Force, Journal of Neurophysiology, 10.1152/jn.00228.2019, (2019).
  • Data Mining Application in Assessment of Weather-Based Influent Scenarios for a WWTP: Getting the Most Out of Plant Historical Data, Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 10.1007/s11270-018-4053-1, 230, 1, (2018).
  • An R 2 statistic for covariance model selection in the linear mixed model , Journal of Applied Statistics, 10.1080/02664763.2018.1466869, 46, 1, (164-184), (2018).
  • Individual differences in emotion regulation goals: Does personality predict the reasons why people regulate their emotions?, Journal of Personality, 10.1111/jopy.12430, 87, 4, (750-766), (2018).
  • Regulating for a reason: Emotion regulation goals are linked to spontaneous strategy use, Journal of Personality, 10.1111/jopy.12447, 87, 5, (948-961), (2018).
  • Response to capture stress involves multiple corticosteroids and is associated with serum thyroid hormone concentrations in Guadalupe fur seals (Arctocephalus philippii townsendi), Marine Mammal Science, 10.1111/mms.12517, 35, 1, (72-92), (2018).
  • Fitting in a group: Theoretical development and validation of the Multidimensional Perceived Person–Group Fit scale, Personnel Psychology, 10.1111/peps.12295, 72, 1, (139-171), (2018).
  • Hormone-Diversity Fit: Collective Testosterone Moderates the Effect of Diversity on Group Performance, Psychological Science, 10.1177/0956797617744282, 29, 6, (859-867), (2018).
  • Time-varying coefficient of determination to quantify the explanatory power of biomarkers on longitudinal GFR among children with chronic kidney disease, Annals of Epidemiology, 10.1016/j.annepidem.2018.05.002, 28, 8, (549-556), (2018).
  • Interacting with wildlife tourism increases activity of white sharks, Conservation Physiology, 10.1093/conphys/coy019, 6, 1, (2018).
  • Internal control beliefs and reference frame concurrently impact early performance monitoring ERPs, Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10.3758/s13415-018-0604-6, 18, 4, (778-795), (2018).
  • Brief Report: Developmental Trajectories of Adaptive Behavior in Children and Adolescents with ASD, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 10.1007/s10803-018-3538-5, 48, 8, (2870-2878), (2018).
  • Determinants of personal exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in adult subjects in Hong Kong, Science of The Total Environment, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.049, 628-629, (1165-1177), (2018).
  • Enhanced biosynthesis of dextransucrase: A multivariate approach to produce a glucosyltransferase for biocatalysis of sucrose into dextran, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.089, 115, (776-785), (2018).
  • Examining a training effect on the state anxiety response to an acute bout of exercise in low and high anxious individuals., Journal of Affective Disorders, 10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.063, (2018).
  • Touch targeting C-tactile afferent fibers has a unique physiological pattern: a combined electrodermal and facial electromyography study, Biological Psychology, 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.11.006, (2018).
  • Neural and behavioral effects of regulating emotional responses to errors during an implicit racial bias task, Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10.3758/s13415-018-0639-8, 18, 6, (1283-1297), (2018).
  • Development of a Within-Subject, Repeated-Measures Ego-Depletion Paradigm, Social Psychology, 10.1027/1864-9335/a000348, 49, 5, (271-286), (2018).
  • Longitudinal Examination of Resilience After Traumatic Brain Injury: A Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Study, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 10.1016/j.apmr.2017.06.013, 99, 2, (264-271), (2018).
  • Self-affirmation enhances processing of negative stimuli among threat-prone individuals, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10.1093/scan/nsy036, 13, 6, (569-577), (2018).
  • Seascape habitat patchiness and hydrodynamics explain genetic structuring of kelp populations, Marine Ecology Progress Series, 10.3354/meps12447, 587, (81-92), (2018).
  • The misattribution of emotions and the error-related negativity: A registered report, Cortex, 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.08.017, 109, (124-140), (2018).
  • Impact of an invasive alien plant on litter decomposition along a latitudinal gradient, Ecosphere, 10.1002/ecs2.2097, 9, 1, (2018).
  • Assessment of overall thoracic limb axial alignment in dogs with antebrachial deformity, Veterinary Surgery, 10.1111/vsu.12962, 47, 8, (1074-1079), (2018).
  • Spatial genetic patterns indicate mechanism and consequences of large carnivore cohabitation within development, Ecology and Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.4033, 8, 10, (4815-4829), (2018).
  • See more

The full text of this article hosted at iucr.org is unavailable due to technical difficulties.