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The One‐Migrant‐per‐Generation Rule in Conservation and Management

La regla de Un‐Migrante‐Por‐Generación en Conservación y Manejo

L. Scott Mills

Wildlife Biology Program, School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, U.S.A., email smills@selway.umt.edu

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Fred W. Allendorf

Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, U.S.A.

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First published: December 1996
Cited by: 383

Abstract

en

In the face of continuing habitat fragmentation and isolation, the optimal level of connectivity between populations has become a central issue in conservation biology. A common rule of thumb holds that one migrant per generation into a subpopulation is sufficient to minimize the loss of polymorphism and heterozygosity within subpopulations while allowing for divergence in allele frequencies among subpopulations. The one‐migrant‐per‐generation rule is based on numerous simplifying assumptions that may not hold in natural populations. We examine the conceptual and theoretical basis of the rule and consider both genetic and nongenetic factors that influence the desired level of connectivity among subpopulations. We conclude that one migrant per generation is a desirable minimum, but it may be inadequate for many natural populations. We suggest that a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 10 migrants per generation would be an appropriate general rule of thumb for genetic purposes, bearing in mind that factors other than genetics may further influence the ideal level of connectivity.

Abstract

es

Debido a la continua fragmentación y aislamiento de habitats, el nivel óptimo de conectividad entre poblaciones se ha convertido en un tema central en la biología de la conservación. Una regla común sostiene que un amigrante por generación en una subpoblación es suficiente para minimizar la pérdida de polimorfismo y heterocigosidad en las subpoblaciones y al mismo tiempo permite la divergencia de frecuencias alélicas entre subpoblaciones. La regla de un‐migrante‐por‐generación se basa en numerosas suposiciones simplifican que tal vez no sucedan en poblaciones naturales. En este trabajo examinamos las bases conceptuales y teóricas de la regla y consideramos factores genéticos y no genéticos que influyen en el nivel deseado de conectividad entre subpoblaciones. Concluimos que un migrante por generación es un mínimo deseable, pero puede ser inadecuado para muchas poblaciones naturales. Surgerimos que un mínimo de uno y un máximo de diez migrantes por generación seria una regla general apropiada para fines genéticos, sin olvidar que factores no genéticos pueden influir en el nivel ideal de conectividad.

Number of times cited: 383

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  • , Comparative population genetics of seven notothenioid fish species reveals high levels of gene flow along ocean currents in the southern Scotia Arc, Antarctica, Polar Biology, 35, 7, (1073), (2012).
  • , Analyses of Genetic Variation in Populations of Oregon Chub, a Threatened Floodplain Minnow in a Highly Altered Environment, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 141, 2, (533-549), (2012).
  • , Genetic diversity, structure, and size of an endangered brown bear population threatened by highway construction in the Pindos Mountains, Greece, European Journal of Wildlife Research, 58, 3, (511), (2012).
  • , Mating System Analysis of Alnus maritima (Seaside Alder), a Rare Riparian Tree, Castanea, 77, 1, (11), (2012).
  • , Genetic diversity and population structure of North America’s rarest heron, the reddish egret (Egretta rufescens), Conservation Genetics, 13, 2, (535), (2012).
  • , Connectivity and population subdivision at the fringe of a large brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in North Western Europe, Conservation Genetics, 13, 3, (681), (2012).
  • , Range overlap and individual movements during breeding season influence genetic relationships of caribou herds in south-central Alaska, Journal of Mammalogy, 93, 5, (1318), (2012).
  • , Y chromosome genetic diversity in the Lidia bovine breed: a highly fragmented population, Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 128, 6, (491-496), (2011).
  • , Assessing the benefits and risks of translocations in changing environments: a genetic perspective, Evolutionary Applications, 4, 6, (709-725), (2011).
  • , Preserving genetic diversity in threatened species reintroductions: how many individuals should be released?, Animal Conservation, 14, 4, (439-446), (2011).
  • , Genetic tools for restoration of fish populations, Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 27, (5-15), (2011).
  • , Weak large‐scale population genetic structure in a philopatric seabird, the European Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis, Ibis, 153, 4, (768-778), (2011).
  • , Impact of climate change and human‐mediated introgression on southern European Atlantic salmon populations, Global Change Biology, 17, 5, (1778-1787), (2010).
  • , Broad and fine‐scale genetic analysis of white‐tailed deer populations: estimating the relative risk of chronic wasting disease spread, Evolutionary Applications, 4, 1, (116-131), (2010).
  • , Bayesian clustering techniques and progressive partitioning to identify population structuring within a recovering otter population in the UK, Journal of Applied Ecology, 48, 5, (1206-1217), (2011).
  • , Could specialization to cold‐water upwelling systems influence gene flow and population differentiation in marine organisms? A case study using the blue‐footed booby, Sula nebouxii, Journal of Biogeography, 38, 5, (883-893), (2011).
  • , Conservation biogeography of the US–Mexico border: a transcontinental risk assessment of barriers to animal dispersal, Diversity and Distributions, 17, 4, (673-687), (2011).
  • , Panmixia on a continental scale in a widely distributed colonial waterbird, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 102, 3, (583-592), (2011).
  • , Impact of habitat fragmentation on the genetics of populations in dendritic landscapes, Freshwater Biology, 56, 12, (2567-2579), (2011).
  • , Reduced genetic diversity and isolation of remnant ocelot populations occupying a severely fragmented landscape in southern Texas, Animal Conservation, 14, 6, (608), (2011).
  • , An experimental evaluation with Drosophila melanogaster of a novel dynamic system for the management of subdivided populations in conservation programs, Heredity, 106, 5, (765), (2011).
  • , Evidence for genetic differentiation of Octopus vulgaris (Mollusca, Cephalopoda) fishery populations from the southern coast of Brazil as revealed by microsatellites, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 407, 1, (34), (2011).
  • , The Global Captive Population of the Red Panda – Possibilities for the Future, Red Panda, 10.1016/B978-1-4377-7813-7.00019-7, (335-356), (2011).
  • , Mitochondrial Evidence for Panmixia despite Perceived Barriers to Gene Flow in a Widely Distributed Waterbird, Journal of Heredity, 102, 5, (584), (2011).
  • , The impact of founder events and introductions on genetic variation in the muskox Ovibos moschatus in Sweden, Acta Theriologica, 56, 4, (305), (2011).
  • , Population genetic diversity and structure within and among disjunct populations of Alnus maritima (seaside alder) using microsatellites, Conservation Genetics, 12, 4, (1003), (2011).
  • , Conservation Genetics of the Largest Cluster of Federally Threatened Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) Colonies with Implications for Species Management, Herpetologica, 67, 4, (406), (2011).
  • , No evident spatial genetic structuring in the rapidly declining Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa limosa in The Netherlands, Conservation Genetics, 12, 3, (629), (2011).
  • , Panmixia and high genetic diversity in a Humboldt Current endemic, the Peruvian Booby (Sula variegata), Journal of Ornithology, 152, 3, (623), (2011).
  • , Genetic diversity of Dinaric brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Croatia with implications for bear conservation in Europe, Mammalian Biology, 10.1016/j.mambio.2010.12.003, 76, 5, (615-621), (2011).
  • , What can genetics tell us about population connectivity?, Molecular Ecology, 19, 15, (3038-3051), (2010).
  • , A novel assessment of population structure and gene flow in grey wolf populations of the Northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, Molecular Ecology, 19, 20, (4412-4427), (2010).
  • , Restoration of genetic connectivity among Northern Rockies wolf populations, Molecular Ecology, 19, 20, (4383-4385), (2010).
  • , A Meta‐Analytic Review of Corridor Effectiveness, Conservation Biology, 24, 3, (660-668), (2010).
  • , Fragmentation of a Neotropical migratory fish population by a century-old dam, Hydrobiologia, 638, 1, (41), (2010).
  • , Molecular insight into the population structure of common and spotted dolphins inhabiting the pelagic waters of the Northeast Atlantic, Marine Biology, 157, 11, (2567), (2010).
  • , Using Dispersal Rates to Guide Translocation Across Impermeable Wildlife Reserve Boundaries: Hawaiian Tree Snails as a Practical Example, Malacologia, 52, 1, (67), (2010).
  • , Microsatellites reveal substantial among-population genetic differentiation and strong inbreeding in the relict fern Dryopteris aemula, Annals of Botany, 106, 1, (149), (2010).
  • , Fine-scale spatial genetic structure and allozymic diversity in natural populations of Ocotea catharinensis Mez. (Lauraceae), Conservation Genetics, 11, 3, (965), (2010).
  • , Conspecific versus heterospecific gene exchange between populations of Darwin's finches, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365, 1543, (1065), (2010).
  • , The Influence of Translocation Strategy and Management Practices on the Genetic Variability of a Reestablished Elk (Cervus elaphus) Population, Restoration Ecology, 18, s1, (85-93), (2010).
  • , Subspecific Status and Population Genetic Structure of Least Terns (Sternula antillarum) Inferred by Mitochondrial DNA Control-Region Sequences and Microsatellite DNA, The Auk, 127, 4, (807), (2010).
  • , The effect of habitat fragmentation on the genetic structure of a top predator: loss of diversity and high differentiation among remnant populations of Atlantic Forest jaguars (Panthera onca), Molecular Ecology, 19, 22, (4906-4921), (2010).
  • , Ranking individual habitat patches as connectivity providers: Integrating network analysis and patch removal experiments, Ecological Modelling, 221, 19, (2393), (2010).
  • , Patterns of habitat occupancy, genetic variation and predicted movement of a flightless bush cricket, Pholidoptera griseoaptera, in an agricultural mosaic landscape, Landscape Ecology, 25, 3, (449), (2010).
  • , A range-wide model of landscape connectivity and conservation for the jaguar, Panthera onca, Biological Conservation, 143, 4, (939), (2010).
  • , Conservation genetics of the alligator snapping turtle: cytonuclear evidence of range-wide bottleneck effects and unusually pronounced geographic structure, Conservation Genetics, 11, 4, (1375), (2010).
  • , Joint Effects of Inbreeding and Local Adaptation on the Evolution of Genetic Load after Fragmentation, Conservation Biology, 23, 6, (1618-1627), (2009).
  • , Importance of Genetics in the Interpretation of Favourable Conservation Status, Conservation Biology, 23, 6, (1378-1381), (2009).
  • , Predicting the Deleterious Effects of Mutation Load in Fragmented Populations, Conservation Biology, 23, 1, (207-218), (2008).
  • , Ability of Wildlife Overpasses to Provide Connectivity and Prevent Genetic Isolation, Conservation Biology, 23, 3, (548-556), (2009).
  • , Strong philopatry derived from capture–recapture records does not lead to fine‐scale genetic differentiation in lesser kestrels, Journal of Animal Ecology, 78, 2, (468-475), (2008).
  • , Metapopulation persistence in fragmented landscapes: significant interactions between genetic and demographic processes, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 22, 1, (152-162), (2008).
  • , Gene Flow in the Face of Countervailing Selection: Adaptation to High-Altitude Hypoxia in the  A Hemoglobin Subunit of Yellow-Billed Pintails in the Andes, Molecular Biology and Evolution, 26, 4, (815), (2009).
  • , Population fragmentation leads to isolation by distance but not genetic impoverishment in the philopatric Lesser Kestrel: a comparison with the widespread and sympatric Eurasian Kestrel, Heredity, 102, 2, (190), (2009).
  • , Genetic structure of natural populations of the relict species Aristolochia manshuriensis (Aristolochiaceae) in disturbed and intact habitats, Russian Journal of Genetics, 45, 6, (678), (2009).
  • , Long-range juvenile dispersal and its implication for conservation of reintroduced swift fox Vulpes velox populations in the USA and Canada, Oryx, 43, 01, (73), (2009).
  • , Patterns of within and between-colony microsatellite variation in the endangered Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis): implications for conservation, Conservation Genetics, 10, 6, (1759), (2009).
  • , Movements of brown bullheads in Presque Isle Bay, Lake Erie, Pennsylvania, Journal of Great Lakes Research, 35, 4, (613), (2009).
  • , Restricted gene flow in the endangered pygmy bluetongue lizard (Tiliqua adelaidensis) in a fragmented agricultural landscape, Wildlife Research, 36, 6, (466), (2009).
  • , Genetic diversity in two barnacle species, Chthamalus stellatus and Tesseropora atlantica (Crustacea, Cirripedia), with different larval dispersal modes in the archipelago of the Azores, Marine Biology, 156, 12, (2441), (2009).
  • , Genetic Aspects of Restoring Olympia Oysters and Other Native Bivalves: Balancing the Need for Action, Good Intentions, and the Risks of Making Things Worse, Journal of Shellfish Research, 28, 1, (121), (2009).
  • , Relating tradable credits for biodiversity to sustainability criteria in a dynamic landscape, Landscape Ecology, 24, 6, (775), (2009).
  • , Long-term changes in the fine-scale population structure of coho salmon populations (Oncorhynchus kisutch) subject to extensive supportive breeding, Heredity, 103, 4, (299), (2009).
  • , Estimating the dispersal capacity of the rare lichen Cliostomum corrugatum, Biological Conservation, 142, 8, (1870), (2009).
  • , Marmots on the Move? Dispersal in a Declining Montane Mammal, Journal of Mammalogy, 90, 3, (686), (2009).
  • , The genealogy and genetic viability of reintroduced Yellowstone grey wolves, Molecular Ecology, 17, 1, (252-274), (2007).
  • , A Behaviorally Explicit Demographic Model Integrating Habitat Selection and Population Dynamics in California Sea Lions, Conservation Biology, 22, 6, (1608-1618), (2008).
  • , A review of extinction in experimental populations, Journal of Animal Ecology, 77, 6, (1274-1287), (2008).
  • , Microsatellite DNA analysis of success in conserving genetic diversity after 33 years of refuge management for the desert pupfish complex, Animal Conservation, 11, 4, (321-329), (2008).
  • , Roads as barriers to animal movement in fragmented landscapes, Animal Conservation, 11, 4, (288-296), (2008).
  • , Linking movement behaviour to dispersal and divergence in plethodontid salamanders, Molecular Ecology, 17, 20, (4459-4469), (2008).
  • , Heterozygosity–fitness correlations and their relevance to studies on inbreeding depression in threatened species, Molecular Ecology, 17, 18, (3978-3984), (2008).
  • , Species traits influence the genetic consequences of river fragmentation on two co-occurring redhorse (Moxostoma) species, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 65, 9, (1892), (2008).
  • , Distinctiveness in the face of gene flow: hybridization between specialist and generalist gartersnakes, Molecular Ecology, 17, 18, (4107-4117), (2008).
  • , Quantifying and managing the loss of genetic variation in a free-ranging population of takahe through the use of pedigrees, Conservation Genetics, 9, 3, (645), (2008).
  • , Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism Assessment of Genetic Diversity in Pacific Lampreys, North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 28, 4, (1182-1193), (2011).
  • , Genetic variation and mtCOI phylogeny for Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) indicate that the ‘B’ biotype predominates in Iran, Journal of Pest Science, 81, 4, (199), (2008).
  • , Limited genetic structure and evidence for dispersal among populations of the endangered Florida grasshopper sparrow, Ammodramus savannarum floridanus, Conservation Genetics, 9, 6, (1633), (2008).
  • , Effectiveness of a highway overpass to promote landscape connectivity and movement of moose and roe deer in Sweden, Landscape and Urban Planning, 85, 2, (133), (2008).
  • , Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) invasion and the spread of hybridization with native westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi), Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 65, 4, (658), (2008).
  • , Effects of highway fencing and wildlife crossings on moose Alces alces movements and space use in southwestern Sweden, Wildlife Biology, 14, 1, (111), (2008).
  • , Genotypic and phenotypic consequences of reintroduction history in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), Conservation Genetics, 9, 2, (389), (2008).
  • , Between a rock and a hard place: evaluating the relative risks of inbreeding and outbreeding for conservation and management, Molecular Ecology, 16, 3, (463-475), (2006).
  • , A Resistant‐Kernel Model of Connectivity for Amphibians that Breed in Vernal Pools, Conservation Biology, 21, 3, (788-799), (2007).
  • , Integration of demography and genetics in population restorations, Ecoscience, 14, 4, (463), (2007).
  • , Population structure of red porgy, Pagrus pagrus, in the Atlantic Ocean, Marine Biology, 10.1007/s00227-006-0425-y, 150, 6, (1321-1332), (2006).
  • , Investigating Natural Population Dynamics of Naultinus Manukanus to Inform Conservation Management of New Zealand's Cryptic Diurnal Geckos, Journal of Herpetology, 41, 1, (81), (2007).
  • , Conservation genetics of snowy plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the Western Hemisphere: population genetic structure and delineation of subspecies, Conservation Genetics, 8, 6, (1287), (2007).
  • , Narrow Contact of Desert Sage Sparrows (Amphispiza belli nevadensis and A. B. canescens) in Owens Valley, Eastern California: Evidence from Mitochondrial DNA, Morphology, and GIS-Based Niche Models, Ornithological Monographs, 63, (78), (2007).
  • , Genetic Variation among Ambystoma Breeding Populations on the Savannah River Site, Conservation Genetics, 8, 2, (281), (2007).
  • , Fidelity and dispersal in the pond-breeding amphibian, Ambystoma opacum: Implications for spatio-temporal population dynamics and conservation, Biological Conservation, 139, 3-4, (247), (2007).
  • , Range of the Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus, metapopulation in the Mediterranean: new insights from Turkey, Journal of Ornithology, 148, 3, (347), (2007).
  • , Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation and loss: the case of the Florida black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus), Conservation Genetics, 8, 2, (455), (2007).
  • , Evolution of Mitochondrial DNA Variation within and among Yukon River Chum Salmon Populations, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 136, 4, (902-910), (2011).
  • , Genetic variation and evidence for population structure in eastern North Pacific false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), Canadian Journal of Zoology, 85, 7, (783), (2007).
  • , Contrasting phylogeography in three endemic Hawaiian limpets (Cellana spp.) with similar life histories, Molecular Ecology, 16, 15, (3173-3186), (2007).
  • , Distinct population segments and grizzly bear delisting in Yellowstone: a response to Rosen, Ursus, 18, 1, (117), (2007).
  • , NARROW CONTACT OF DESERT SAGE SPARROWS (AMPHISPIZA BELLI NEVADENSIS AND A. B. CANESCENS) IN OWENS VALLEY, EASTERN CALIFORNIA: EVIDENCE FROM MITOCHONDRIAL DNA, MORPHOLOGY, AND GIS-BASED NICHE MODELS, Ornithological Monographs, 63, 1, (78), (2007).
  • , Implications of life history for genetic structure and migration rates of southern African coastal invertebrates: planktonic, abbreviated and direct development, Marine Biology, 10.1007/s00227-007-0724-y, 152, 3, (697-711), (2007).
  • , FAST‐TRACK: A southern California freeway is a physical and social barrier to gene flow in carnivores, Molecular Ecology, 15, 7, (1733-1741), (2006).
  • , Phylogeography of the flag cabrilla Epinephelus labriformis (Serranidae): implications for the biogeography of the Tropical Eastern Pacific and the early stages of speciation in a marine shore fish, Journal of Biogeography, 33, 6, (969-979), (2006).
  • , Population structure in a critically endangered arctic fox population: does genetics matter?, Molecular Ecology, 15, 10, (2809-2819), (2006).
  • , LINKING DIRECT AND INDIRECT DATA ON DISPERSAL: ISOLATION BY SLOPE IN A HEADWATER STREAM SALAMANDER, Ecology, 87, 2, (334-339), (2006).
  • , Connectivity, habitat heterogeneity, and population persistence in Ranunculus nodiflorus, an endangered species in France, New Phytologist, 169, 1, (71-84), (2005).
  • , Conservation genetics of the threatened horned grebe (Podiceps auritus L.) population of the Magdalen Islands, Québec, Conservation Genetics, 6, 4, (539), (2006).
  • , INVITED REVIEW: What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity, Molecular Ecology, 15, 6, (1419-1439), (2006).
  • , Status and distribution pattern of black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) in Wuliang Mountains, Yunnan, China: implication for conservation, Primates, 47, 3, (264), (2006).
  • , Genetic structure, population dynamics, and conservation of Black caiman (Melanosuchus niger), Biological Conservation, 133, 4, (474), (2006).
  • , Gene Flow in Complex Landscapes: Testing Multiple Hypotheses with Causal Modeling, The American Naturalist, 168, 4, (486), (2006).
  • , THE TRADE OFF BETWEEN GENETIC GAIN AND CONSERVATION IN A PARTICIPATORY IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMME: THE CASE OF PEACH PALM (BACTRIS GASIPAESKUNTH), Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 16, 1, (17), (2006).
  • , Multiscale Genetic Structure of Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout in the Upper Snake River Basin, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 135, 3, (711-726), (2011).
  • , Genetic load in subdivided populations: interactions between the migration rate, the size and the number of subpopulations, Heredity, 96, 1, (69), (2006).
  • , Does Breeding Site Fidelity Drive Phenotypic and Genetic Sub-Structuring of a Population of Arctic Charr?, Evolutionary Ecology, 20, 1, (11), (2006).
  • , Corridors for Conservation: Integrating Pattern and Process, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 37, 1, (317), (2006).
  • , Estuarine and Diadromous Fish Metapopulations, Marine Metapopulations, 10.1016/B978-012088781-1/50007-8, (119-154), (2006).
  • , Dispersal of breeding, adult male Phocarctos hookeri: Implications for disease transmission, population management and species recovery, Biological Conservation, 127, 2, (227), (2006).
  • , Population genetic structure in migratory sandhill cranes and the role of Pleistocene glaciations, Molecular Ecology, 14, 9, (2645-2657), (2005).
  • , Conservation implications of complex population structure: lessons from the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), Molecular Ecology, 14, 8, (2389-2402), (2005).
  • , Phylogeographic structure and postglacial evolutionary history of water voles (Arvicola terrestris) in the United Kingdom, Molecular Ecology, 14, 5, (1435-1444), (2005).
  • , Ecological Genetics: Design, Analysis, and Application, Austral Ecology, 30, 7, (815-816), (2005).
  • , Effects of environmental pollution on microsatellite DNA diversity in wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) populations, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 24, 11, (2898-2907), (2009).
  • , GEOGRAPHICAL GENETICS: CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS AND EMPIRICAL APPLICATIONS OF SPATIAL GENETIC DATA IN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT, The Journal of Wildlife Management, 69, 4, (1434-1453), (2010).
  • , Single‐Family versus Multi‐Family Introductions, Plant Biology, 7, 5, (509-515), (2008).
  • , Spatiotemporal allozyme variation in the damselfly, Lestes viridis (Odonata: Zygoptera): gene flow among permanent and temporary ponds, Genetica, 124, 2-3, (137), (2005).
  • , Gene flow after inbreeding leads to higher survival in deer mice, Biological Conservation, 123, 4, (413), (2005).
  • , Genetic and demographic consequences of importing animals into a small population: a simulation model of the Texas State Bison Herd (USA), Ecological Modelling, 181, 2-3, (263), (2005).
  • , Metapopulation viability: influence of migration, Conservation Genetics, 6, 1, (75), (2005).
  • , Genetic structure and random amplified polymorphic DNA diversity of the rapidly declining Angelica palustris (Apiaceae) in Eastern Germany in relation to population size and seed production, Plant Species Biology, 20, 3, (191-200), (2005).
  • , Asymmetric gene flow and the evolutionary maintenance of genetic diversity in small, peripheral Atlantic salmon populations, Conservation Genetics, 6, 5, (823), (2005).
  • , LARGE-SCALE MOVEMENT PATTERNS BETWEEN SONG DIALECTS IN BROWN-HEADED COWBIRDS (MOLOTHRUS ATER), The Auk, 122, 3, (803), (2005).
  • , Landscape Equivalency Analysis: Methodology for Estimating Spatially Explicit Biodiversity Credits, Environmental Management, 36, 4, (518), (2005).
  • , Gene flow among San Joaquin kit fox populations in a severely changed ecosystem, Conservation Genetics, 6, 1, (25), (2005).
  • , Chloroplast microsatellite variation in Abies nordmanniana and simulation of causes for low differentiation among populations, Tree Genetics & Genomes, 1, 3, (116), (2005).
  • , HIGH GENETIC VARIABILITY DESPITE HIGH-AMPLITUDE POPULATION CYCLES IN LEMMINGS, Journal of Mammalogy, 86, 2, (380), (2005).
  • , Effects of population size on genetic diversity and seed production in the rare Dictamnus albus(Rutaceae) in central Germany, Conservation Genetics, 6, 1, (63), (2005).
  • , Characterization and conservation of genetic diversity in subdivided populations, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 360, 1459, (1367), (2005).
  • , MITOCHONDRIAL PHYLOGEOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATION GENETICS OF WOLVERINE (GULO GULO) OF NORTHWESTERN NORTH AMERICA, Journal of Mammalogy, 86, 2, (386), (2005).
  • , Temporal changes in allele frequencies and low effective population size in greater prairie‐chickens, Molecular Ecology, 13, 9, (2617-2630), (2004).
  • , Ecological and life history characteristics predict population genetic divergence of two salmonids in the same landscape, Molecular Ecology, 13, 12, (3675-3688), (2004).
  • , Founding events influence genetic population structure of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in Lake Clark, Alaska, Molecular Ecology, 13, 2, (277-290), (2004).
  • , Avifaunal responses to habitat fragmentation in the threatened littoral forests of south‐eastern Madagascar, Journal of Biogeography, 31, 11, (1791-1807), (2004).
  • , Defining eradication units to control invasive pests, Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 6, (1042-1048), (2004).
  • , BARRIERS TO SYMPATRY BETWEEN AVIAN SIBLING SPECIES (PARIDAE: BAEOLOPHUS) IN LOCAL SECONDARY CONTACT1, Evolution, 58, 7, (1573-1587), (2007).
  • , Genetic variability and population structure among wild Baird's tapirs, Animal Conservation, 7, 2, (211-220), (2006).
  • , GENETIC MONITORING OF SCANDINAVIAN BROWN BEAR EFFECTIVE POPULATION SIZE AND IMMIGRATION, The Journal of Wildlife Management, 68, 4, (960-965), (2010).
  • , Cryptic speciation, genetic diversity and gene flow in the California turret spider Atypoides riversi (Araneae: Antrodiaetidae), Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 82, 1, (27-37), (2004).
  • , Factors influencing the spawning migration of female anadromous brown trout, Journal of Fish Biology, 64, 2, (528-540), (2004).
  • , Designing a Conservation Landscape for Tigers in Human‐Dominated Environments, Conservation Biology, 18, 3, (839-844), (2004).
  • , Application of the One‐Migrant‐per‐Generation Rule to Conservation and Management, Conservation Biology, 18, 2, (332-343), (2004).
  • , Constraints for re-establishing a meta-population of the European bison in Ukraine, Biological Conservation, 120, 3, (345), (2004).
  • , BARRIERS TO SYMPATRY BETWEEN AVIAN SIBLING SPECIES (PARIDAE: BAEOLOPHUS) IN LOCAL SECONDARY CONTACT1, Evolution, 58, 7, (1573), (2004).
  • , GENETIC STRUCTURE OF COUGAR POPULATIONS ACROSS THE WYOMING BASIN: METAPOPULATION OR MEGAPOPULATION, Journal of Mammalogy, 85, 6, (1207), (2004).
  • , Optimizing reserve expansion for disjunct populations of San Joaquin kit fox, Biological Conservation, 117, 1, (61), (2004).
  • , MICROSATELLITE ANALYSIS OF A HYBRID ZONE BETWEEN CHROMOSOMALLY DIVERGENT POPULATIONS OF CTENOMYS MINUTUS FROM SOUTHERN BRAZIL (RODENTIA: CTENOMYIDAE), Journal of Mammalogy, 85, 6, (1201), (2004).
  • , Microsatellite DNA variation reveals high gene flow and panmictic populations in the Adriatic shared stocks of the European squid and cuttlefish (Cephalopoda), Heredity, 93, 2, (166), (2004).
  • , Modeling Factors Affecting the Severity of Outbreeding Depression, Conservation Biology, 17, 3, (883-892), (2003).
  • , Designing a Coherent Ecological Network for Large Mammals in Northwestern Europe, Conservation Biology, 17, 2, (549-557), (2003).
  • , Role of Corridors in Plant Dispersal: an Example with the Endangered Ranunculus nodif lorus, Conservation Biology, 17, 2, (401-410), (2003).
  • , LINKING DISPERSAL TO LOCAL POPULATION DYNAMICS: A CASE STUDY USING A HEADWATER SALAMANDER SYSTEM, Ecology, 84, 8, (2145-2154), (2003).
  • , Assessing population structure and gene flow in Montana wolverines (Gulo gulo) using assignment‐based approaches, Molecular Ecology, 12, 11, (2907-2918), (2003).
  • , Bottlenecks in large populations: the effect of immigration on population viability, Evolutionary Ecology, 17, 3, (213), (2003).
  • , Microsatellite diversity assessment of brown trout (Salmo trutta) population structure indicate limited genetic impact of stocking in a Norwegian alpine lake, Ecology of Freshwater Fish, 11, 2, (93-100), (2002).
  • , Microsatellite diversity and genetic structure of fragmented populations of the rare, fire‐dependent shrub Grevillea macleayana, Molecular Ecology, 11, 6, (967-977), (2002).
  • , Reconstructing recent divergence: evaluating nonequilibrium population structure in New Zealand chinook salmon, Molecular Ecology, 11, 4, (739-754), (2002).
  • , Spatial and temporal population structure of sea trout at the Island of Gotland, Sweden, delineated from mitochondrial DNA, Journal of Fish Biology, 60, 1, (49-71), (2005).
  • , Deleterious Effects of Restricted Gene Flow in Fragmented Populations, Conservation Biology, 16, 2, (369-376), (2002).
  • , Rapid Genetic Decline in a Translocated Population of the Endangered Plant Grevillea scapigera, Conservation Biology, 16, 4, (986-994), (2002).
  • , Small mammals, habitat patches and PVA models: a field test of model predictive ability, Biological Conservation, 103, 3, (247), (2002).
  • , A genetic background for reintroduction program of the European bison (Bison bonasus) in the Carpathians, Biological Conservation, 108, 2, (221), (2002).
  • , Emerging Issues in Population Viability Analysis, Conservation Biology, 16, 1, (7-19), (2002).
  • , SYMPATRICSPECIATION INPHYTOPHAGOUSINSECTS: Moving Beyond Controversy?, Annual Review of Entomology, 47, 1, (773), (2002).
  • , Confidence limits for regression relationships between distance matrices: Estimating gene flow with distance, Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics, 7, 3, (361), (2002).
  • , Implications of movement patterns for gene flow in black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta), Canadian Journal of Zoology, 80, 7, (1162), (2002).
  • , Local and Landscape‐Scale Predictors of Salamander Abundance in New Hampshire Headwater Streams, Conservation Biology, 16, 1, (183-193), (2002).
  • , Does parental divergence predict reproductive compatibility?, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17, 11, (520), (2002).
  • , Microsatellites reveal high levels of gene flow among populations of the California squid Loligo opalescens, Molecular Ecology, 10, 5, (1101-1109), (2001).
  • , Population structure in the endangered Mauna Loa silversword, Argyroxiphium kauense (Asteraceae), and its bearing on reintroduction, Molecular Ecology, 10, 7, (1657-1663), (2001).
  • , Experimental Evidence for Beneficial Fitness Effects of Gene Flow in Recently Isolated Populations, Conservation Biology, 15, 4, (1054-1063), (2002).
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  • , Conservation genetics of the endangered Shenandoah salamander (Plethodon shenandoah, Plethodontidae), Animal Conservation, 4, 2, (111-119), (2006).
  • , REDUCED GENETIC DIVERSITY IN EELGRASS TRANSPLANTATIONS AFFECTS BOTH POPULATION GROWTH AND INDIVIDUAL FITNESS, Ecological Applications, 11, 5, (1472-1488), (2001).
  • , Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach, Conservation Biology, 15, 2, (467-474), (2002).
  • , Influence of remnant and landscape attributes on Australian woodland bird communities, Biological Conservation, 102, 1, (47), (2001).
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  • , Mating system and genetic variance in a polygynous mustelid, the European polecat., Genes & Genetic Systems, 76, 4, (221), (2001).
  • , TESTING A SIMULATION MODEL FOR POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS, Ecological Applications, 10, 2, (580-597), (2000).
  • , POPULATION GENETIC STRUCTURE OF TWO ECOLOGICALLY DISTINCT AMAZONIAN SPINY RATS: SEPARATING HISTORY AND CURRENT ECOLOGY, Evolution, 54, 4, (1423-1432), (2007).
  • , Is one migrant per generation sufficient for the genetic management of fluctuating populations?, Animal Conservation, 3, 3, (261-266), (2006).
  • , Evaluating Dispersal Estimates Using mtDNA Data: Comparing Analytical and Simulation Approaches, Conservation Biology, 14, 5, (1287-1297), (2001).
  • , Genetic Bottlenecks Resulting from Restoration Efforts: The Case of Bighorn Sheep in Badlands National Park, Restoration Ecology, 8, 4S, (85-90), (2001).
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  • , The Javan hawk-eagle: misconceptions about rareness and threat, Biological Conservation, 96, 3, (297), (2000).
  • , HABITAT QUALITY IN A HOSTILE RIVER CORRIDOR, Ecology, 80, 2, (597-607), (1999).
  • , Conservation Units and Translocations: Strategies for Conserving Evolutionary Processes, Hereditas, 130, 3, (217-228), (2004).
  • , Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation within the remnant populations of the endangered numbat (Marsupialia: Myrmecobiidae: Myrmecobius fasciatus), Molecular Ecology, 8, 9, (1545-1549), (2002).
  • , Microsatellite diversity in sympatric reproductive ecotypes of Pacific steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from the Middle Fork Eel River, California, Ecology of Freshwater Fish, 8, 3, (159-168), (2006).
  • , HETEROSIS AND OUTBREEDING DEPRESSION IN INTERPOPULATION CROSSES SPANNING A WIDE RANGE OF DIVERGENCE, Evolution, 53, 6, (1757-1768), (2017).
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  • , Experimental Tests of Captive Breeding for Endangered Species, Conservation Biology, 13, 6, (1487-1496), (2001).
  • , Microsatellite diversity and conservation of a relic trout population: McCloud River redband trout, Molecular Ecology, 8, s1, (S129-S142), (2002).
  • , Genetic structure and gene flow among Komodo dragon populations inferredby microsatellite loci analysis, Molecular Ecology, 8, s1, (S17-S30), (2002).
  • , A review of the evidence for genetic structure of cod (Gadus morhua) populations in the NW Atlantic and population affinities of larval cod off Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Fisheries Research, 10.1016/S0165-7836(99)00067-3, 43, 1-3, (79-97), (1999).
  • , Erosion of Heterozygosity in Fluctuating Populations, Conservation Biology, 13, 4, (860-868), (2001).
  • , Gene flow and endangered species translocations: a topic revisited, Biological Conservation, 87, 2, (173), (1999).
  • , Developments in predicting the effective size of subdivided populations, Heredity, 82, 2, (212), (1999).
  • , A Protocol for Plant Conservation by Translocation in Threatened Lowland Fynbos, Conservation Biology, 13, 4, (735-743), (2001).
  • , Conservation Priorities for Chukar Partridge in Israel Based on Genetic Diversity across an Ecological Gradient, Conservation Biology, 13, 3, (542-552), (2002).
  • , First policy then science: why a management unit based solely on genetic criteria cannot work, Molecular Ecology, 8, s1, (S11-S16), (2002).
  • , Number of Censuses Required for Demographic Estimation of Effective Population Size, Conservation Biology, 12, 5, (1023-1030), (2001).
  • , Genetic structure in a coastal dune spider (Geolycosa pikei) on Long Island, New York Barrier Islands, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 64, 1, (69-82), (2008).
  • , Morphological variation in the catadromous Australian bass, from seven geographically distinct riverine drainages, Journal of Fish Biology, 52, 4, (829-843), (2005).
  • , Variation in annual estimates of effective population size for San Joaquin kit foxes, Animal Conservation, 1, 3, (179-184), (2006).
  • , Status and Trends of the Endangered Colorado Squawfish in the Upper Colorado River, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 127, 6, (957-970), (2011).
  • , Microsatellite analysis of genetic population structure in an endangered salmonid: the coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki), Molecular Ecology, 7, 6, (733-749), (2002).
  • , A nuclear DNA basis for shelf‐ and bank‐scale population structure in northwest Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua): Labrador to Georges Bank, Molecular Ecology, 7, 12, (1663-1680), (2002).
  • , GENETIC FINGERPRINT‐INFERRED POPULATION SUBDIVISION AND SPATIAL GENETIC TESTS FOR ISOLATION BY DISTANCE AND ADAPTATION IN THE COASTAL PLANT LIMONIUM CAROLINIANUM, Evolution, 51, 5, (1457-1468), (2017).
  • , Potential Population Genetic Consequences of Habitat Fragmentation in Central European Forest Trees and Associated Understorey Species—An Introductory Survey, Diversity, 10.3390/d9010009, 9, 1, (9), (2017).
  • , Determining causes of genetic isolation in a large carnivore (Ursus americanus) population to direct contemporary conservation measures, PLOS ONE, 10.1371/journal.pone.0172319, 12, 2, (e0172319), (2017).
  • , Gene flow connects coastal populations of a habitat specialist, the Clapper Rail Rallus crepitans, Ibis, , (2018).
  • , Genetic diversity and population history of the Killarney fern, Vandenboschia speciosa (Hymenophyllaceae), at its southern distribution limit in continental Europe, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, , (2016).
  • , Genetic Control of Contagious Asexuality in the Pea Aphid, PLoS Genetics, 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004838, 10, 12, (e1004838), (2014).
  • , Morphological and genetic divergence between two lineages of Magnolia salicifolia (Magnoliaceae) in Japan, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 10.1093/biolinnean/bly139, (2018).