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RESEARCH REPORT
Open Access

Spatial differences and temporal changes in illicit drug use in Europe quantified by wastewater analysis

Christoph Ort

Corresponding Author

Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Switzerland

Co‐first authors.
Correspondence to: Christoph Ort, Urban Water Management, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH‐8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland. E‐mail:

christoph.ort@eawag.ch

; Alexander van Nuijs, Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. E‐mail:

alexander.vannuijs@uantwerpen.be

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Alexander L. N. van Nuijs

Corresponding Author

Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Co‐first authors.
Correspondence to: Christoph Ort, Urban Water Management, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH‐8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland. E‐mail:

christoph.ort@eawag.ch

; Alexander van Nuijs, Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. E‐mail:

alexander.vannuijs@uantwerpen.be

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Jean‐Daniel Berset

Water and Soil Protection Laboratory, Bern, Switzerland

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Lubertus Bijlsma

Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain

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Sara Castiglioni

Department of Environmental Health Sciences, IRCCS—Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy

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Adrian Covaci

Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

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Pim de Voogt

KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands

Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

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Erik Emke

KWR Watercycle Research Institute, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands

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Despo Fatta‐Kassinos

NIREAS‐International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus

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Paul Griffiths

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon, Portugal

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Félix Hernández

Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón de la Plana, Spain

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Iria González‐Mariño

IIAA—Institute of Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

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Roman Grabic

University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Faculty of Fisheries and Protection of Waters, South Bohemian Research Center of Aquaculture and Biodiversity of Hydrocenoses, Vodnany, Czech Republic

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Barbara Kasprzyk‐Hordern

Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK

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Nicola Mastroianni

Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA‐CSIC, Barcelona, Spain

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Axel Meierjohann

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Åbo, Finland

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Thomas Nefau

Laboratoire Santé Publique Environnement, University of Paris Sud, Châtenay‐Malabry, France

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Marcus Östman

Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

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Yolanda Pico

Food and Environmental Safety Research Group, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

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Ines Racamonde

IIAA—Institute of Food Analysis and Research, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

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Malcolm Reid

Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Oslo, Norway

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Jaroslav Slobodnik

Environmental Institute, Kos, Slovak Republic

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Senka Terzic

Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Rudjer Boskovic Institute Bijenicka, Zagreb, Croatia

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Nikolaos Thomaidis

Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Kevin V. Thomas

Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Oslo, Norway

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First published: 27 May 2014
Cited by: 133

[The copyright line for this article was changed on 05 September 2014 after original online publication.]

Abstract

Aims

To perform wastewater analyses to assess spatial differences and temporal changes of illicit drug use in a large European population.

Design

Analyses of raw wastewater over a 1‐week period in 2012 and 2013.

Setting and Participants

Catchment areas of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) across Europe, as follows: 2012: 25 WWTPs in 11 countries (23 cities, total population 11.50 million); 2013: 47 WWTPs in 21 countries (42 cities, total population 24.74 million).

Measurements

Excretion products of five illicit drugs (cocaine, amphetamine, ecstasy, methamphetamine, cannabis) were quantified in wastewater samples using methods based on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.

Findings

Spatial differences were assessed and confirmed to vary greatly across European metropolitan areas. In general, results were in agreement with traditional surveillance data, where available. While temporal changes were substantial in individual cities and years (P ranging from insignificant to <10−3), overall means were relatively stable. The overall mean of methamphetamine was an exception (apparent decline in 2012), as it was influenced mainly by four cities.

Conclusions

Wastewater analysis performed across Europe provides complementary evidence on illicit drug consumption and generally concurs with traditional surveillance data. Wastewater analysis can measure total illicit drug use more quickly and regularly than is the current norm for national surveys, and creates estimates where such data does not exist.

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