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Defining the Public Health Threat of Food Fraud
Abstract
Abstract: Food fraud, including the more defined subcategory of economically motivated adulteration, is a food risk that is gaining recognition and concern. Regardless of the cause of the food risk, adulteration of food is both an industry and a government responsibility. Food safety, food fraud, and food defense incidents can create adulteration of food with public health threats. Food fraud is an intentional act for economic gain, whereas a food safety incident is an unintentional act with unintentional harm, and a food defense incident is an intentional act with intentional harm. Economically motivated adulteration may be just that—economically motivated—but the food‐related public health risks are often more risky than traditional food safety threats because the contaminants are unconventional. Current intervention systems are not designed to look for a near infinite number of potential contaminants. The authors developed the core concepts reported here following comprehensive research of articles and reports, expert elicitation, and an extensive peer review. The intent of this research paper is to provide a base reference document for defining food fraud—it focuses specifically on the public health threat—and to facilitate a shift in focus from intervention to prevention. This will subsequently provide a framework for future quantitative or innovative research. The fraud opportunity is deconstructed using the criminology and behavioral science applications of the crime triangle and the chemistry of the crime. The research provides a food risk matrix and identifies food fraud incident types. This project provides a starting point for future food science, food safety, and food defense research.
Practical Application: Food fraud, including the more defined subcategory of economically motivated adulteration, is a food protection threat that has not been defined or holistically addressed. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, led to the development of food defense as an autonomous area of study and a new food protection discipline. As economically motivated adulteration grows in scope, scale, and awareness, it is conceivable that food fraud will achieve the same status as an autonomous concept, between food safety and food defense. This research establishes a starting point for defining food fraud and identifying the public health risks.
Citing Literature
Number of times cited according to CrossRef: 155
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- Ann Marucheck, Product Safety and the Food Supply Chain, Reference Module in Food Science, 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.03127-9, (2016).
- Amanda M. Naaum, Kimberly Warner, Stefano Mariani, Robert H. Hanner and Christopher Drake Carolin, Seafood Mislabeling Incidence and Impacts, Seafood Authenticity and Traceability, 10.1016/B978-0-12-801592-6.00001-2, (3-26), (2016).
- Connor Black, Olivier P. Chevallier and Christopher T. Elliott, The current and potential applications of Ambient Mass Spectrometry in detecting food fraud, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 10.1016/j.trac.2016.06.005, 82, (268-278), (2016).
- M. Mansoor Bhat, Mir Salahuddin, Imtiyaz A. Mantoo, Sheikh Adil, Henna Jalal and M. Ashraf Pal, Species-specific identification of adulteration in cooked mutton Rista (a Kashmiri Wazwan cuisine product) with beef and buffalo meat through multiplex polymerase chain reaction, Veterinary World, 9, 2, (226), (2016).
- Aleksandar Nedeljković, Petra Rösch, Jürgen Popp, Jelena Miočinović, Mira Radovanović and Predrag Pudja, Raman Spectroscopy as a Rapid Tool for Quantitative Analysis of Butter Adulterated with Margarine, Food Analytical Methods, 9, 5, (1315), (2016).
- Louise Manning, Robert Smith and Jan Mei Soon, Developing an organizational typology of criminals in the meat supply chain, Food Policy, 59, (44), (2016).
- Louise Manning and Jan Mei Soon, Food Safety, Food Fraud, and Food Defense: A Fast Evolving Literature, Journal of Food Science, 81, 4, (R823), (2016).
- L. Chiesa, S. Panseri, S. Bonacci, A. Procopio, A. Zecconi, F. Arioli, F.J. Cuevas and J.M. Moreno-Rojas, Authentication of Italian PDO lard using NIR spectroscopy, volatile profile and fatty acid composition combined with chemometrics, Food Chemistry, 212, (296), (2016).
- Louise Manning, Food fraud: policy and food chain, Current Opinion in Food Science, 10, (16), (2016).
- Britta Müller, Katharina Verhaelen, Valérie Eberlein, Beyza Ülker Celik, Maria Butzenlechner, Ulrich Busch, Christian Weidner, Heinrich Holtmannspötter, Willi Gilsbach and Peter Wallner, Etablierung eines Frühwarnsystems zur Erkennung lebensmittelbedingter Risiken in Bayern – risikoorientierte Lebensmittelüberwachung weiter gefasst, Journal für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit, 11, 1, (9), (2016).
- Karola Böhme, Jorge Barros‐Velázquez, Pilar Calo‐Mata, José M. Gallardo and Ignacio Ortea, Seafood Authentication using Foodomics, Genomics, Proteomics and Metabolomics in Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, (14-30), (2015).
- D. Cozzolino, The role of vibrational spectroscopy as a tool to assess economically motivated fraud and counterfeit issues in agricultural products and foods, Analytical Methods, 7, 22, (9390), (2015).
- Simon A. Haughey, Pamela Galvin-King, Yen-Cheng Ho, Steven E.J. Bell and Christopher T. Elliott, The feasibility of using near infrared and Raman spectroscopic techniques to detect fraudulent adulteration of chili powders with Sudan dye, Food Control, 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.03.047, 48, (75-83), (2015).
- Angela Di Pinto, Marilisa Bottaro, Elisabetta Bonerba, Giancarlo Bozzo, Edmondo Ceci, Patrizia Marchetti, Anna Mottola and Giuseppina Tantillo, Occurrence of mislabeling in meat products using DNA-based assay, Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 4, (2479), (2015).
- Tara A. Okuma and Rosalee S. Hellberg, Identification of meat species in pet foods using a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, Food Control, 50, (9), (2015).
- A. Armani, L. Guardone, R. La Castellana, D. Gianfaldoni, A. Guidi and L. Castigliego, DNA barcoding reveals commercial and health issues in ethnic seafood sold on the Italian market, Food Control, 55, (206), (2015).
- Satu Tähkäpää, Riitta Maijala, Hannu Korkeala and Mari Nevas, Patterns of food frauds and adulterations reported in the EU rapid alert system for food and feed and in Finland, Food Control, 47, (175), (2015).
- Ignacio Ortea and José M. Gallardo, Investigation of production method, geographical origin and species authentication in commercially relevant shrimps using stable isotope ratio and/or multi-element analyses combined with chemometrics: An exploratory analysis, Food Chemistry, 170, (145), (2015).
- Áine Regan, Afrodita Marcu, Liran Christine Shan, Patrick Wall, Julie Barnett and Áine McConnon, Conceptualising responsibility in the aftermath of the horsemeat adulteration incident: an online study with Irish and UK consumers, Health, Risk & Society, 17, 2, (149), (2015).
- John Spink, Douglas C. Moyer, Hyeonho Park, Yongning Wu, Victor Fersht, Bing Shao, Miao Hong, Seung Yeop Paek and Dmitry Edelev, Introducing Food Fraud including translation and interpretation to Russian, Korean, and Chinese languages, Food Chemistry, 189, (102), (2015).
- Bernd van der Meulen, Is current EU food safety law geared up for fighting food fraud?, Journal für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit, 10, S1, (19), (2015).
- John Spink, Douglas C Moyer, Hyeonho Park and Justin A Heinonen, Development of a product-counterfeiting incident cluster tool, Crime Science, 3, 1, (2014).
- Louise Manning and Jan Mei Soon, Developing systems to control food adulteration, Food Policy, 10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.06.005, 49, (23-32), (2014).
- Lígia Bueno, William de Araujo, Maiara Salles, Marcos Kussuda and Thiago Paixão, Voltammetric Electronic Tongue for Discrimination of Milk Adulterated with Urea, Formaldehyde and Melamine, Chemosensors, 2, 4, (251), (2014).
- Katja Mertens, Lisa Freund, Gernot Schmoock, Christoph Hänsel, Falk Melzer and Mandy C. Elschner, Comparative evaluation of eleven commercial DNA extraction kits for real-time PCR detection of Bacillus anthracis spores in spiked dairy samples, International Journal of Food Microbiology, 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.10.022, 170, (29-37), (2014).
- Miguel Ángel Sentandreu and Enrique Sentandreu, Authenticity of meat products: Tools against fraud, Food Research International, 60, (19), (2014).
- Ah-Young Ko, Md. Musfiqur Rahman, A.M. Abd El-Aty, Jin Jang, Jeong-Heui Choi, M.I.R. Mamun and Jae-Han Shim, Identification of volatile organic compounds generated from healthy and infected powdered chili using solvent-free solid injection coupled with GC/MS: Application to adulteration, Food Chemistry, 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.001, 156, (326-332), (2014).
- Virginia M. Wheatley and John Spink, Defining the Public Health Threat of Dietary Supplement Fraud, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12, 6, (599-613), (2013).
- John Spink, Douglas C Moyer, Hyeonho Park and Justin A Heinonen, Defining the types of counterfeiters, counterfeiting, and offender organizations, Crime Science, 2, 1, (8), (2013).
- KAREN EVERSTINE, JOHN SPINK and SHAUN KENNEDY, Economically Motivated Adulteration (EMA) of Food: Common Characteristics of EMA Incidents, Journal of Food Protection, 76, 4, (723), (2013).
- Donna-Mareè Cawthorn, Harris A. Steinman and Louwrens C. Hoffman, A high incidence of species substitution and mislabelling detected in meat products sold in South Africa, Food Control, 32, 2, (440), (2013).
- Jeffrey C. Moore, John Spink and Markus Lipp, Development and Application of a Database of Food Ingredient Fraud and Economically Motivated Adulteration from 1980 to 2010, Journal of Food Science, 77, 4, (R118-R126), (2012).
- John Spink and Zoltán Levente Fejes, A review of the economic impact of counterfeiting and piracy methodologies and assessment of currently utilized estimates, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 36, 4, (249), (2012).
- Yun Wang and Evangelyn C. Alocilja, Sensor technologies for anti-counterfeiting, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 36, 4, (291), (2012).
- John Spink, Defining Food Fraud and the Chemistry of The Crime, Improving Import Food Safety, (195-216), (2012).
- Olga De Castro, Maria Comparone, Antonietta Di Maio, Emanuele Del Guacchio, Bruno Menale, Jacopo Troisi, Francesco Aliberti, Marco Trifuoggi and Marco Guida, What is in your cup of tea? DNA Verity Test to characterize black and green commercial teas, PLOS ONE, 10.1371/journal.pone.0178262, 12, 5, (e0178262), (2017).
- Emma Tonkin, Annabelle M. Wilson, John Coveney, Julie Henderson, Samantha B. Meyer, Mary Brigid McCarthy, Seamus O’Reilly, Michael Calnan, Aileen McGloin, Edel Kelly and Paul Ward, Food-system actors’ perspectives on trust: an international comparison, British Food Journal, 10.1108/BFJ-05-2018-0291, (2018).
- I. Djekic, A. Režek Jambrak, J. Djugum and A. Rajkovic, How the food industry experiences and perceives food fraud, Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods, 10.3920/QAS2018.1365, (1-10), (2018).
- Jan Mei Soon, Louise Manning and Robert Smith, Advancing understanding of pinch-points and crime prevention in the food supply chain, Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 10.1057/s41300-019-00059-5, (2019).
- Winfreda Nyamota Maoga, Adequacy of Nutrient Intake, Morbidity and Nutritional status of HIV and AIDS Infected Children at Pre and Post Amaranth Grain Supplementation, Journal of Nutritional Health & Food Engineering, 10.15406/jnhfe.2016.04.00116, 4, 1, (2016).
