Motivation to learn in university science students studying anatomy: A mixed‐methods analysis of what drives learning

Exploring student motivation to learn is a research area that has rapidly expanded over the past decade, especially as the COVID‐19 pandemic continues to influence education. In the field of anatomy, most research about motivation to learn targets medical and other health professional students, but little is known about factors that drive students enrolled in science degrees. The aims of this mixed‐methods study were to determine: (1) what motivates undergraduate university science students to learn anatomy, and whether motivation differs between cohorts (second‐ and third‐year) and gender; and (2) the impact of COVID‐19 on motivation to learn. Students (n = 171) completed a survey (the Science Motivation Questionnaire II [SMQII] and questions about learning experiences during the pandemic) and a subset (n = 12) participated in focus groups/interviews. Quantitative data were analyzed using a combination of parametric and non‐parametric statistics, and a general inductive approach was applied to qualitative data. Grade, intrinsic, and career factors were consistently identified as the key components of motivation. No statistically significant differences were found for motivation components between level of study or gender. Students reported that the COVID‐19 pandemic negatively impacted motivational components, but it had also fast‐tracked the development of online learning, with both positive and negative connotations. Students value traditional in‐person lectures but support a blended approach of traditional and online teaching methods for learning anatomy. Educators should utilize these findings when considering how to teach and support science students in ways that embrace motivational components to foster success in those studying anatomy.


INTRODUC TI ON
A crucial element in all academic pursuits is finding the motivation to learn a chosen subject.This motivation is what "initiates and sustains" learning and can be driven by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as career, grades, interest, self-determination, and self-efficacy. 1,2Anatomy is a core subject for students engaged in a range of degrees, including medicine and health professional courses such as dentistry, physiotherapy, and pharmacy [3][4][5][6][7] and is also pursued by students studying sciences outside of these pathways. 8,9idence relating to motivation to learn anatomy is mostly derived from students studying for a degree in the health professions.
For example, a study by Campos-Sanchez et al. 3 , involving medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy students, reported differing intrinsic and extrinsic motivators between these three cohorts-career motivation was highest in medical students, and dentistry students had the highest self-determination.These findings underpin the importance of offering classroom experiences that cater to different motivation profiles.[12] Although students' motivation to learn science in a general context (e.g., for use in both science and non-science majors) has been explored, 1,13 to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has specifically addressed this topic in undergraduate science students.It is likely that science students' perspectives of motivational components may not only differ from those of health professional students but also change across the course of a degree.A better understanding of these factors could inform pedagogical methods used in teaching science students studying anatomy, by utilizing this information to create a learning environment that best motivates these students.
Another important consideration pertaining to student motivation is the change in anatomy education brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. 14It is likely that the disruptions of the pandemic and subsequent imposed modifications to teaching and learning approaches have impacted students' motivation to learn, particularly given the initial rapid transition to online learning with decreased opportunities for "hands-on" experiences and a greater focus on self-directed study. 14,15During the pandemic, medical students reported that they preferred traditional methods and found that online learning negatively impacted both the value and effectiveness of their education. 168][19] Prior studies have shown how students learning anatomy have mixed opinions on the use of online learning, 20,21 which means it is important to consider how these methods may have affected students' motivation.
The primary aim of this study was to investigate what influences the motivation to learn anatomy in undergraduate science students and to compare motivational profiles between cohorts of secondand third-year students, as well as between genders.A secondary aim was to explore students' perceptions of how the University's response to the COVID-19 pandemic influenced their motivation to learn anatomy.Understanding these factors should provide a basis for the formulation of recommendations for the teaching and support of university students studying anatomy to enhance their motivation and, potentially, their success.

MATERIAL S AND ME THODS
This study employed a mixed-methods approach, consisting of an online survey, which once completed, was followed by focus groups or individual interviews conducted over a videoconferencing platform (Zoom, Zoom Video Communications, San Jose, California.Inc. Version 5.8.4).Ethics approval for this study was obtained from the University of Otago Human Ethics Committee (reference number D21/298).

Survey
All students who were enrolled in a second-or third-year anatomy course (excluding those enrolled in health professional courses) at the University of Otago were invited via email to participate in the survey, in September 2021 (mid-way through their second semester).This email consisted of a link to the survey (Qualtrics, Provo, Utah, United States), with students providing informed consent before completing the questions.The survey (Appendix A) consisted of three main parts: (a) demographic questions (5 items); (b) the Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQII) 1 ; and, (c) questions relating to teaching and learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, adapted from the work of Totlis et al. 16 (Question number 12 was omitted from the original survey and two questions that related to the effectiveness and educational value of in-person laboratories were added, giving 15 questions in total).The SMQII comprised questions that assessed five components of motivation: intrinsic, career, self-determination, self-efficacy and grade, with five questions for each component (25 questions in total).The survey developed by Totlis et al. 16 primarily relates to preference of teaching and learning approaches for anatomy lectures: "traditional" (in-person, synchronous), "online" (via Zoom, synchronous), "pre-recorded" (asynchronous), and "self-teaching" (self-directed study using resources such lecture notes and PowerPoint slides).Responses to components of the latter two parts of the survey were ranked on a 5-point Likert scale-the SMQII ranged from 1 (lowest; never) to 5 (highest, always) and the Totlis et al. 16 survey from 1 (highest, most positive) to 5 (lowest, most negative).Participants were also asked to rank their preferred method of teaching and were given an opportunity to provide comments related to the topics presented in the survey.Those who wished were able to volunteer to participate in subsequent focus groups.The survey was available for completion between September 20 and November 7, 2021, and the focus groups took place from November 29 to December 7, 2021, at the end of the university year.

Statistical analyses
Means and standard deviations (SD) for each of the questions in the SMQII were calculated as well as for the five components of motivation, 1 for the entire sample, year level cohorts, and gender (excluding students who selected non-binary/prefer to self-describe in the male/female gender comparison).The Kolomogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine the distribution of data; if the distribution was normal, then comparisons between groups were made using a parametric test-the Student's t-test.If the Kolomogorov-Smirnov test did not show a normal distribution, then equal variance was confirmed using Levene's test, and comparisons between groups were made using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test.p-values <0.05 were considered statistically significant.Responses to the questions using a 5-point Likert scale were collapsed into three categories, [1][2][3][4][5] with means and SDs calculated.In the question where participants were asked to rank items in order of preference, mean ranks were calculated, with lower ranks indicating greater preference.
Cronbach's alpha (a measure of internal consistency) was measured separately for the components of the questionnaire assessing motivation, including each of the five components 1 and teaching and learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, 16 according to the criteria of Taber 22 .

Focus groups and interviews
Initially, the intention was to run only focus groups, but due to factors related to timing and the availability of students, three focus groups (3-5 participants) and two individual interviews were conducted over Zoom at the end of the academic year, with a total of 12 participants overall.These were led by the primary author (BW) with one of the other researchers in attendance.Seven main questions were formulated relating to factors that motivate students to learn anatomy in both positive and negative ways, laboratory and lecture experiences, and how the University's response to the COVID-19 pandemic impacted learning motivation.These questions formed the basis of the focus group discussions, providing participants the chance to expand on their survey answers, using an open-answer questioning technique which encouraged discussion (Appendix B).
All sessions were recorded and transcribed verbatim using Zoom transcription software and reviewed by BW in preparation for qualitative analysis.Comments from the open format question at the end of the survey and the full transcriptions from the focus groups/interviews were analyzed using a "coding reliability" thematic analysis approach. 23Multiple readings of the scripts and resulting coding led to several key themes being identified.Clarity of these codes and themes was checked by two members of the research team (NF and RB) and any conflicts were resolved by another researcher (SW).

Participant demographics
From 718 eligible second-and third-year anatomy science students, 171 (24%) participated in this study by completing the online survey.
Approximately 75% of the participants were female, with just over half (52.5%) identifying as New Zealand European.Slightly more students were enrolled in second-year courses compared to thirdyear courses (52.6% vs. 45.6%) and two-thirds had aspirations of a career in either science or medicine (Table 1).The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.908 for the SMQII (individual components of motivation: intrinsic = 0.759; career = 0.825; self-determination = 0.851; self-efficacy = 0.819; and, grade = 0.840) and 0.593 (teaching and TA B L E 1 Demographic characteristics of participants (n = 171).b Students who were enrolled in both second-and third-year courses were grouped with second-year for analysis.
learning experiences), respectively.These data suggest that the first survey instrument (including all of its five components) is more acceptable in terms of internal validity than the second survey. 22e SMQII With respect to the SMQII (Tables 2 and 3), there were no statistically significant differences between groups when comparing year of study or gender.Of the five components of motivation (Table 3), grade motivation was rated the highest (on a 5-point Likert score where 1 is the lowest and 5 the highest) (total mean 4.28, SD 0.20), and self-efficacy the lowest (total mean 3.74, SD 0.18).

Preferred teaching and learning methods
Approximately two-thirds of students (66.0%; 113/171) reported that they attend in-person lectures >75% of the time, compared to 37.1% (52/140) for online (via Zoom) options during COVIDrelated disruptions (Table 4).When asked about the effectiveness of different teaching methods, traditional (lectures) was the TA B L E 2 Motivation of science students studying anatomy, by year, as assessed using the SMQII.5).These were scored on a 5-point Likert scale with 1 being the highest (most positive) and 5 the lowest (most negative).
When asked about teaching approaches moving forward, students "disagreed or strongly disagreed" with completely replacing traditional lectures with any form of online learning (real-time Zoom, 124/171 (72.5%); pre-recorded, 120/169 (71.0%)).Partial replacement of traditional lectures with pre-recorded lectures produced a mixed response; with about a third of second and third-year students agreeing or strongly agreeing to this option (34.1%; 58/170), but a greater proportion (41.2%; 70/170) selected "disagree or strongly disagree" (Table 6).Traditional in-person lectures were the most preferred learning and teaching method, ranked first (mean rank = 1.5), followed by pre-recorded lectures (mean rank = 2.3), online lectures (mean rank = 2.8), and self-directed learning (mean rank = 3.4).

Focus groups and interviews
Twelve of 30 students (4 male, 8 female) who indicated their interest in the focus groups, participated in these sessions.Three key themes for motivation emerged from the data: (1) interest in the subject; (2) obtaining good grades, and (3) future career/post-graduate study goals.In addition to motivation to learn anatomy, students also discussed: (4) their preferred methods of learning; specifically, TA B L E 3 Motivational components of the SMQII, for second-and third-year science students studying anatomy.(5) learning in lectures and (6) learning in laboratories; as well as (7)   the impact of the University's response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
These themes are discussed in detail below and illustrated with participant quotes.

Interest in the subject
Multiple students, across almost every group, cited interest as their main motivator to learn anatomy, as shown by this quote: "I like to learn anatomy because it genuinely interests me and it's one of my passions" (second-year male student).Many factors influenced students' interest, but of particular note was learning clinically relevant content: "… learning that is more applicable to my end goal" (third-year male student).Being around peers with similar drive or goals was also considered to contribute to students' interest in anatomy with another third-year male student saying "It's great to have people around you who are genuinely interested in it … that kind of reinvigorates my own passion for studying."Other factors enhancing interest included the chance to learn valuable new skills and having assessments and laboratories where students were able to selfselect their study topic.
Students also indicated that engaging and passionate educators were essential to their continued interest in the subject, as evidenced by this quote: "If you have a really good lecturer it makes so much difference in your whole interest in the topic" (second-year female student).

Obtaining good grades
Obtaining good grades was a factor that motivated students: "I think for me a personal motivating factor is good grades, wanting to push myself to do well academically" (third-year male student).
This motivation was enhanced by being around others with similar goals (as noted above), as well as having a good routine.Additionally, partaking in papers with assessment structures that suited their individual learning strategies further enhanced grade motivation with several students discussing courses that used multiple formative assessments.One student described papers that offered multiple assessments as being "really good to keep me motivated and to keep me actually studying actively and working toward it" (third-year female student).

Future career/postgraduate study goals
Similar to having an interest in the subject, there was evidence that the career component of motivation was enhanced by learning about clinically relevant content and obtaining valuable skills, and in this case, those that could be applied to future careers or study.This, TA B L E 5 Effectiveness and educational value of different teaching methods.Note: Some options were not applicable, meaning the total number of responses for each teaching method does not total 171 participants.a Students were asked to rate their experiences using traditional (in-person, synchronous) anatomy lectures as the standard, with the exception of in-person laboratories (which was ranked as a stand-alone item).

TA B L E 6
Opinion of students on replacing traditional anatomy lectures with online options.Note: Some options were not applicable, meaning the total number of responses for each teaching method does not total 171 participants.
in particular, resonated with a third-year male student when discussing dissection: "I think I probably put in more focus and concentrated a lot more, just because it was relevant to my career."Another thirdyear male student also stated: "For ages, I just didn't actually like anatomy, but I wanted to study it because I like the areas of research that you could go into from it … so what motivated me was just the end goal." Interestingly, both stress and competition (with other students) were additional factors identified by students as positive and/or negative influencers of grade or career-based motivation, that affected their motivation overall.One student stated that competition for them was "both positive and negative in a way … when other people are going for the same goals as me of course it made me want to work harder, but sometimes not for the right reasons, because I get stressed" (third-year male student).

Preferred methods of learning
In regard to preferred methods of learning, responses to the survey questions 16 were echoed in the focus group/interview discussions.Participants recommended keeping teaching in-person whenever possible to maintain their "university experience": "Keeping stuff in-person … I think that'll always be important" (third-year student).Many students discussed the university environment (i.e., lecture theaters, laboratories, libraries, and their peers) and their experience as factors for retaining teaching inperson, both of which also appeared to influence their motivation.
For example, a third-year male student commented "I think the lectures are so valuable for those enrichments outside of just academic learning … the environment of it is so much more conducive to my learning."Another third-year male student added: "The experience of attending university is really motivating.No matter what you're learning." Other suggestions for how students want to learn included practical suggestions such as: incorporating more tutorials, having smaller class sizes, improving communication, including more formative assessments/or quizzes and continuing to provide approachable, passionate teaching staff.

Learning in lectures
Most students acknowledged the pros and cons of both online and in-person learning and stated a preference for autonomy over choosing how to learn from lectures (in-person or online, synchronous or asynchronous).In-person lectures were praised for their academic environment and opportunities for engagement with lecturers and peers, whereas, the pause, replay, and revise elements of online learning formats were the main benefits of this teaching method.Many students spoke of having the ability to ask questions directly as being a major advantage of in-person lectures as evidenced by this quote: "Sometimes you just have little questions and I probably wouldn't email a lecturer about it but I can just quickly ask something" (second-year female student).
Another student also discussed the importance of in-person lectures in terms of the teaching staff stating "… in-person, when you can engage with the lecturer, and they can engage with you, it just makes it so much better" (third-year male student).Although online learning opportunities may result in a decrease in in-person lecture attendance, many participants believed those who learn better online benefit from the dual teaching methods available.
Some indicated useful factors in online learning such as being able to rewind and listen again or being able to keep up even though they were a slow typist.

Learning in laboratories
Students favored in-person laboratories over online classes in regard to their applied learning opportunities.Online laboratory classes-delivered via platforms such as Zoom and Moodle, consisted of discussions, activities, and access to anatomy resources, but lacked hands-on activities that usually form the basis of anatomy laboratories-were depicted as inefficient, difficult to learn from, with students unable to gain valuable practical skills.One student stated: "I personally couldn't stand the online laboratories.I found them really difficult to keep engaged with, especially learning the content for the exams" (third-year male student).Another third-year student explained: "It's not always about the degree, it's about the soft skills and I think you miss out on all those soft skills when you're not getting in-person learning."Conversely, it was expressed that in-person laboratories can also sometimes be inefficient with respect to time.

The impact of the University's response to COVID-19
Despite providing opportunities for the development of new, and perhaps more flexible, teaching and learning methods which were well received by many students, the impact of the University's response to COVID-19 seemed to be largely negative when discussing participants' motivation to learn.In both the open-text comments in the survey and the focus groups, participants shared their experiences in declining mental health associated with isolation.
This is evidenced by this quote: "… in lockdown not being able to go onto campus and everything it kind of takes a toll on your mental health a bit … having them completely online almost mimics a lockdown again" (second-year female student).Such comments suggest that the environment in which students are learning may impact motivation more than is realized.During the pandemic, these students were completing classes by themselves, in their rooms, likely in the same space they ate and slept in, and they were missing out on the socialization and environment that traditionally comes with attending university.One student spoke of a loss of university routine saying "Doing that routine just to come back upstairs and sit at your desk in your room is not nearly as satisfying" (third-year female student).Participants reported a decline in their grades and a sense of feeling unprepared for forging a career path.There was also discussion about how communication between students and staff was more difficult during periods of online learning.

DISCUSS ION
This study examined the motivation of science students' learning anatomy and demonstrates through quantitative and qualitative analysis that interest, grades, and career are likely to be the main motivators for these students, regardless of year level and gender.
Our findings also show that these students highly value synchronous, face-to-face teaching methods, particularly in-person lectures and anatomy laboratories, largely due to the unique university experience that they offer, but they are also receptive to blended learning approaches, aligning with recent literature. 24,25tivational drivers for science students Science students highly rank career, interest, and grades as the main drivers that underpin their motivation to learn anatomy.These components of the motivational profile, ascertained by the SMQII, share similarities to those of health professional students. 3,26,27However, in addition, science students reported high levels of self-determination and self-efficacy, potentially setting them apart from other cohorts.
As motivation is an important determinant of learning and academic performance, 26,28 understanding what drives science students is a key consideration when designing and implementing anatomical curriculum and pedagogy.Examples of how this could be implemented within an anatomy course include targeting career motivation by ensuring the integration of transferrable skills (such as critical thinking and laboratory experiences) 29 and highlighting clinical applicability by drawing authentic links between anatomy and clinical disciplines. 30,31try into a health professional course was the potential end goal for a number of our participants, and as such, they share similar motivations with medical cohorts, 32 being highly motivated to learn when clinical relevance was incorporated with the anatomical content.
In the SMQII survey results, motivation to study anatomy was not significantly different between year groups or gender.This contrasts with medical students, where students at earlier stages of their training felt less interested in anatomy than those who were more advanced along the educational pathway, largely attributed to the teaching they received. 32It also differs to the findings of Campos-Sanchez et al. 3 whereby gender differences were apparent across the five motivation categories for medical (males scored higher for career motivation), dentistry (males scored higher for self-efficacy); and pharmacy (females scored higher for intrinsic, career and grade; males for self-efficacy).While our sample provides a diverse representation of our science cohort, the lack of motivational differences between the year groups is worth exploring further to confirm our findings, ideally in a larger sample that yields a higher response rate. .
Three key themes emerged from the focus groups which support those findings from the SMQII, and further showcase the importance of interest, grades, and career in motivating science students to study anatomy.The majority of students were motivated to learn anatomy because of their interest in the subject, a curiosity that was enhanced by clinically relevant material and engaging educators.
These factors that influence interest align with health professional students studying anatomy who report that clinical relevance, passionate and diverse educators, and general interest in the subject promote motivation. 10,12,33,34ade motivation was the highest-scoring component of the SMQII survey.This finding is unsurprising, because, as noted previously, a large proportion of science students studying anatomy at the University of Otago are seeking entry into health professional courses such as medicine, or postgraduate research courses, which require high-grade averages.Focus group discussion mentioned grade motivation was enhanced in courses which provided an increased number of assessment opportunities, which is similar to studies on health professional students that found frequent assessment enhances motivation to learn anatomy. 33,35 discussed above, the intent of further study, either in the health professions (49% of our sample) or postgraduate research (34%), provided goal-oriented motivation for our students.As with grade-driven motivation, research involving health professional courses shows that career or study goals drive students to learn anatomy, as they view it as an important part of their future career. 10,30,33Our study adds to these findings by showing that this component of motivation in health professional students is shared by science students.Further comparisons between the two cohorts would be interesting as health professional students tend to be motivated by career goals, while our science student goal motivation was largely focused on future study, and then the potential careers that might follow.
When considering the three main themes emerging from this study (interest, grades, and career), it is important to consider how these themes interact with one another to generate motivation in those studying anatomy.Interestingly, these key themes align with the self-determination theory of motivation.This theory suggests that students require three factors to feel motivated to learn-autonomy, competence, and relatedness. 11Autonomy can also be thought of as self-efficacy and is achieved through interest, variety of resources, and clinical relevance which give students a sense of control over their learning. 10,11,30Competence is achieved through assessments, 35 which are directly linked to grades.Finally, relatedness is achieved through interactions with educators and peers, 10,11 as well as students seeing relations between what they are learning and their goals, which aligns with the career or future study goal component of motivation.
Understanding these interactions provides opportunities to enhance teaching and learning approaches, to further encourage motivation in our students; for example, we could provide greater student choice in learning activities or more opportunities for feedback. 36e impact of COVID-19 restrictions on science student motivation Our results from both the SMQII and focus group discussions indicate that the University's response to the COVID-19 pandemic negatively influenced all three of the components of motivation discussed above.Students struggled to maintain their interest in learning, which anecdotally caused a decline in grades and decreased motivation to pursue career or study goals.These findings support current literature that discusses reduced motivation to learn anatomy during the pandemic, suggesting that limited access to learning materials and online assessments contributed to this decline. 15,37Many students also mentioned that the loss of an academic environment and direct communication between themselves, teaching staff, and their peers, were negative components of the pandemic that significantly reduced their motivation to study anatomy.Other studies have demonstrated similar findings, [38][39][40][41] which, coupled with teachers' motivation to teach, 37 were major factors that influenced students' motivation during the pandemic.It is important that we understand how the pandemic has both positively and negatively affected student motivation, not only for the benefit of post-pandemic education but also to ensure we are prepared should this happen again in the future.
Overall, traditional (in-person) teaching remains the most preferred method of learning among our students, and is an essential consideration when looking at ways to further improve upon motivation to learn anatomy.It is somewhat surprising that in-person face-to-face lectures were highly rated by our students, as this finding is discordant with our observations of historically decreasing attendance at lectures both prior to, and since, COVID-19 interruptions to teaching.4][45][46] As noted above, our students recognize the importance of face-to-face in-person interactions, but are also receptive to the benefits of a multimodal approach to teaching and learning brought about by the COVID-19 pandemicparticularly how a blended curriculum can create an environment that is conducive to a wider range of students, largely aligning with the findings of Totlis et al. 16 Students also suggested ways in which this could be improved (e.g., smaller classes, increased clinical relevance, and access to interactive research) but flexibility of learning modalities and the option to access material online is one way that we can maintain the benefits of in-person education and draw upon learnings from the responses to the COVID 19 pandemic. 17,19,39,47The blended learning environment has a number of advantages, including a positive effect on student grades and motivation, as well as retaining some in-person learning, for example, for laboratories. 19,39,48Our anatomy program for science students has continued to evolve over recent years, with inperson lectures and laboratories increasingly being complemented by a suite of online resources.A better understanding of the motivational profile of our students is a useful reference for continuing to develop anatomy education specific to this cohort.

Reflections
We recognize that our response rate of 24% is lower than the reported average (44%) for online surveys. 49While there is no straight-forward answer as to what constitutes an optimum survey response rate, 50 we are reasonably confident in our survey estimates and their generalizability, 51 particularly given the total pool (700 students) and the diversity of our sample.An increased uptake of our survey as well as more focus group participants could have provided additional insights into motivation to learn and teaching and learning preferences in this science student cohort.We explored potential differences across year groups and gender, however, it would also be valuable to understand if specific motivational profiles link to culture, particularly for our Māori and Pacific students, to help identify ways to improve their educational outcomes. 52,53We acknowledge that three participants were non-binary or preferred to self-describe their gender and unfortunately, due to this small sample, we were not able to include their data in the gender-related analyses.In future studies, we need to better embrace gender diversity by enhancing research processes and reflecting further on how findings may impact gender-diverse students. 54,55Although we examined the motivational profile of our students, we did not assess how this affects their academic performance through learning or assessment outcomes, 56,57 nor did we explore the influence of personality traits on students' perceptions of in-person or online learning. 58,59Our findings in relation to the University's response to the COVID-19 pandemic were specific to a New Zealand context and particular anatomy courses, and may not be applicable to the experiences in other countries.

CON CLUS ION
This study has demonstrated that in order to increase science students' motivation to learn anatomy, it is important to: consider features and activities that maintain student interest, provide opportunities for students to engage meaningfully with assessments and grades, and include components of learning which are relevant to their career plans.This could be achieved by targeting the features of the self-determination theory, including the use of clinically relevant scenarios, encouraging interactions between educators and peers, maintaining routine, and creating more assessment opportunities.Science students are similar to those in health professional courses across the three main areas of motivation but have their own specific motivational profile that requires consideration in the design and delivery of courses within anatomy science education.

ACK N OWLED G M ENTS
The authors sincerely thank all of the student participants

a
Data are presented as mean score ± SD.Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = usually, 5 = always.Abbreviation: SMQII, Science Motivation Questionnaire II. a Total student number differs from that for male and females by 3, due to non-binary/prefer to self-describe individuals.TA B L E 4 Attendance at in-person and online lectures.Question Response n % How often do you attend "traditional anatomy lectures" in-person?171 All or most of the time 113 you attend "online anatomy lectures" during lock-down?This question was not applicable to some of the 171 participants.

1 . 5 .
who willing gave up their time to contribute to the survey and/ or the focus group/interviews.Open access publishing facilitated by the University of Otago, as part of the Wiley -University of Otago agreement via the Council of Australian University Librarians.A PPEN D I X A Modified Science Motivation Questionnaire II In order to better understand what you think and how you feel about your anatomy courses, please respond to each of the following statements from the perspective of "When I am undertaking my anatomy major…."(Response scale: 1-Never; 2-Rarely; 3-Sometimes; 4-Usually; 5-Always) 1.The anatomy I learn is relevant to my life 2.I like do better than other students on anatomy tests/ assignments/exams 3. Learning anatomy is interesting 4. Getting a good anatomy grade is important to me 5.I put enough effort into learning anatomy 6.I use strategies to learn anatomy well 7. Learning anatomy will help me get a good job 8.It is important that I get an "A" in anatomy 9.I am confident I will do well on anatomy tests/assignments/exams 10.Knowing anatomy will give me a career advantage 11.I spend a lot of time learning anatomy 12. Learning anatomy makes my life more meaningful 13.Understanding anatomy will benefit me in my career 14.I am confident I will do well on anatomy laboratories and assignments 15.I believe I can master anatomy knowledge and skills 16.I prepare well for anatomy tests and laboratories 17.I am curious about discoveries in anatomy 18.I believe I can earn a grade of "A" in anatomy 19.I enjoy learning anatomy 20.I think about the grade I will get in anatomy 21.I am sure I can understand anatomy 22.I study hard to learn anatomy 23.My career will involve anatomy 24.Scoring high on anatomy tests, assignments and exams matters to me 25.I will use problem-solving skills that I learnt studying anatomy in my career Questions relating to learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic (Adapted from Totlis et al. 16 ) How would you rate your satisfaction with the effectiveness of in-person laboratories, that you attend as part of your anatomy major?(Response scale: 1-Very satisfied; 2-Satisfied; 3-Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied; 4-Dissatisfied; 5-Very dissatisfied) 2. What is your opinion on the educational value of the in-person laboratories?(Response scale: 1-Very valuable; 2-Valuable; 3-Neither valuable nor not valuable; 4-Not valuable; 5-Not at all valuable) 3. How often do you attend "traditional anatomy lectures" in-person?(Response scale: All of the time; Most of the time (>75%); Half of the time (50%); Some of the time (<25%); None of the time) 4. If applicable, how often did you attend "online anatomy lectures" that were offered in real-time via Zoom, during lockdown?(Response scale: All of the time; Most of the time (>75%); Half of the time (50%); Some of the time (<25%); None of the time; Not applicable) The following questions ask you to rate your satisfaction of the effectiveness of different teaching methods (if you have experienced these during COVID-related disruption or at any other time).(Response scale: 1-Very satisfied; 2-Satisfied; 3-Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied; 4-Dissatisfied; 5-Very dissatisfied; 6-Not applicable) 1. In-person "traditional anatomy lectures" 2. "Online anatomy lectures" offered in real-time via Zoom 3. Pre-recorded anatomy lectures 4. Self-teaching by studying anatomy lecturer's presentation 6.The following questions ask you to provide your opinion of the educational value of different teaching methods, taking traditional (in-person) anatomy lectures as standard.(Response scale: 1-Very valuable; 2-Valuable; 3-Neither valuable nor not valuable; 4-Not valuable; 5-Not at all valuable; 6-Not applicable) 1. "Online anatomy lectures" offered in real-time via Zoom 2. Pre-recorded anatomy lectures 3. Self-teaching by studying anatomy lecturer's presentation NaN.My stand on the claim "After the COVID-19 pandemic, the traditional way of teaching by attending 'traditional anatomy lectures' should by COMPLETELY REPLACED by 'online anatomy lectures' offered in real-time via Zoom is…" (Response scale: 1-Strongly agree; 2-Agree; 3-Neither agree nor disagree; 4-Disagree; 5-Strongly disagree) NaN.My stand on the claim "After the COVID-19 pandemic, the traditional way of teaching by attending 'traditional anatomy lectures' should by COMPLETELY REPLACED by pre-recorded anatomy lectures is…" (Response scale: 1-Strongly agree; 2-Agree; 3-Neither agree nor disagree; 4-Disagree; 5-Strongly disagree) NaN.My stand on the claim "After the COVID-19 pandemic, the traditional way of teaching by attending 'traditional anatomy lectures' should by PARTIALLY REPLACED by pre-recorded anatomy lectures…"