Accelerating the African continental free trade area through optimization of digital supply chains

The integration of e‐commerce into supply chain management (SCM) and logistics operations has greatly impacted the way these processes are executed. The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has disrupted traditional SCM and logistics business processes, making digitalization a crucial element for differentiation and competitiveness. The objective of this article was to investigate how the adoption of appropriate digital technologies could accelerate intra‐African trade in goods and services through the AfCFTA Agreement. The author employed a content analysis of the primary source documents, specifically the Protocol on Trade in Goods, available on the AfCFTA's website. The nine Annexes of the Protocol on Trade in Goods were evaluated against a digital supply chain (DSC) model adopted in this article. The results of the analysis showed that the supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA's Protocol on Trade in Goods could be effectively identified and mapped to potential digital technologies through the adopted DSC framework. The practical implications of this study suggest that the AfCFTA could adopt a DSC framework as a guide in concluding negotiations on the Protocol on Digital Trade to harness the benefits of digital technologies. As the main contribution, this article provides a DSC framework that could be utilized to accelerate intra‐African trade through optimization of supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA.


MALATJI
Signed by 54 out of the 55 AU member states, 6 the AfCFTA Agreement has the potential to connect 1.3 billion people across 55 African countries, creating a single market for goods and services with a combined gross domestic product valued at approximately 3.4 trillion United States of America dollars (USD 3.4 trillion). 5,7,8The AfCFTA is also aimed at increasing intra-African trade and investment. 9In addition to the establishment of the AfCFTA, the AfCFTA Agreement encompasses trade areas outlined in Figures 1 and 2. 4,7,10,11 At the time of writing, negotiations on certain areas of the AfCFTA Agreement (such as the rules of origin for goods, tariff concessions, and schedules of commitments for services), 4 are still ongoing.The Protocol on Disputes Settlement, on the other hand, has already been concluded and is shown in shaded blocks in Figure 1. 4 Although the Protocol on Customs and Trade Facilitation appears as a separate trade area in Figure 1, it is designed to support the Protocol on Trade in Goods and its related matters. 10All the Annexes, except for the "capacity building" Annex in the Protocol on Customs and Trade Facilitation, are already included in the Protocol on Trade in Goods, which is why Signé and van der Ven 11 and Tralac 4 do not consider the Protocol on Customs and Trade Facilitation as (separate and a) part of Phase 1.The implementation of the concluded Annexes in Phase 1, which marked the beginning of the trading phase, was launched on January 1, 2021. 12hase 2 negotiations, which encompass Intellectual Property Rights, Competition Policy, and Investment, have already begun.Furthermore, the Protocol on Women and Youth in Trade and Protocol on Digital Trade have been recently

F I G U R E 1 Phase 1 of the African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement
F I G U R E 2 Phase 2 of the African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement added to the Phase 2 negotiating agenda. 10Although Ismail 9 and Tralac 4 suggest that these protocols will be negotiated in the Phase 3 round, they are included in Phase 2 in this article, as per the adaptation of Figure 2 from AfCFTA Secretariat. 10s of the time of writing, the specifics regarding the annexes to be negotiated under Phase 2 of the AfCFTA Agreement remain undefined and have not been made publicly available.The Protocol on Investment aims to promote, facilitate, and protect investments that support the sustainable development of state parties, while still preserving their right to regulate. 10The Protocol on Intellectual Property Rights is a critical component for the successful realization of the objectives of the AfCFTA. 10The Protocol on Competition Policy, on the other hand, aims to foster efficiency, innovation, and competitiveness within the AfCFTA market by promoting the offering of goods and services to consumers under the most favorable terms by trading entities and enterprises. 10The latest addition to the negotiations agenda, the Protocol on Women and Youth in Trade, is intended to create a supportive environment that will allow African women and youth to capitalize on trade opportunities within the AfCFTA market.
The goal of this research article is to examine digital trade, which encompasses e-commerce and digital platforms, as a technology concept rather than as a protocol under negotiation within the AfCFTA framework.While previous studies have focused on the AfCFTA Agreement, most of them have centered on the regulations and legal provisions of the trade area agreement, as well as the high-level implementation strategies and challenges, but have not delved into the practical application of digital technologies.For instance, Tavengerwei et al. 2 investigated policy matters pertaining to the regulation of online transactions, access to source code, technology transfer, customs duties on electronic transmissions, and intermediary liability.Meanwhile, Banga et al. 13 compared the digital trade provisions in South-South trade agreements, and Banga et al. 14 analyzed the implications of e-commerce in preferential trade agreements for the AfCFTA.Ismail 9 examined the policies and approaches through which the AfCFTA Agreement could leverage e-commerce opportunities and harness its growth potential, while Mafimisebi and Ogunsade 5 investigated the challenges and opportunities of the digital economy in Africa.Chivunga and Tempest 1 touched upon the potential of digital technologies within the AfCFTA in general terms.
While these previous studies by Banga et al., 13 Banga et al., 14 Chivunga and Tempest, 1 Ismail, 9 Mafimisebi and Ogunsade, 5 Tavengerwei et al., 2 and a few others have explored the potential impact of Industry 4.0 technologies on the AfCFTA, there is a noticeable lack of studies specifically focused on its potential impact on the supply chain management (SCM) and logistics operations of the AfCFTA Agreement.This gap in the literature leaves room for questions about the applicability of digital supply chain (DSC) frameworks within the unique socio-economic and political landscape of the African continent.Furthermore, the existing literature has not thoroughly investigated how the AfCFTA can effectively adopt a data-driven DSC framework to optimize its supply chain and logistics processes, nor has it provided actionable recommendations for policymakers and practitioners on how to implement such a framework within the AfCFTA context.This article aims to fill these gaps by developing a DSC framework for the AfCFTA, grounded in the theoretical foundations of Industry 4.0, and providing practical insights into how the adoption of this framework can enhance intra-African trade in goods and services.This will be achieved by examining the implications of the Protocol on Digital Trade, introduced during Phase 2 of the AfCFTA negotiations, on the supply and logistics value chain.
Although the scope of this article is not limited to the Protocol on Digital Trade, the goal is to explore how digital trade and e-commerce, including digital platforms, can be incorporated into the AfCFTA value chain.At the time of writing, only the Protocol on Trade in Goods has been published on the AfCFTA's website.Hence, this article focused solely on the data extracted from the Protocol on Trade in Goods with the following research objectives in mind: 1. Identify the supply chain and logistics processes implied within the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA.2. Outline strategies that can be employed to digitalize the supply chain and logistics processes identified in the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA.
To address the two research objectives, I have employed a systematic approach combining a literature review and content analysis of the AfCFTA Agreement.First, I conducted a scoping review to understand the current state of knowledge on Industry 4.0 technologies and their potential impact on SCM and logistics processes; a phenomenon referred to as digital supply chains.This enabled me to identify gaps in the existing literature and establish the theoretical foundations for the study.Next, I performed a detailed content analysis of the AfCFTA Agreement, focusing on the Protocol on Trade in Goods, to identify supply chain and logistics processes that could benefit from digitalization.By mapping these processes to the relevant components of an Industry 4.0 framework, I proposed a data-driven DSC framework that can help the AfCFTA optimize and enhance its supply chain and logistics processes through the Protocol on Digital Trade.Finally, I discussed the practical implications of the findings and provided recommendations for policymakers and practitioners on how to effectively implement the proposed DSC framework within the AfCFTA context.This article is structured as follows: In Section 2, a background and context of the study is presented, including a discussion of the challenges faced by the AfCFTA, the concept of digitalization and its application to supply chains.The methodology adopted for the study is described in Section 3. The findings of the study are presented in Section 4, followed by a discussion in Section 5 highlighting the contributions of this article.Finally, in Section 6, the limitations, implications and recommendations for future work are outlined and the article concludes.

AfCFTA challenges and digitalization
The background section of this article provides an overview of the AfCFTA challenges and the concept of digitalization as they relate to the study.The AfCFTA presents various obstacles that hinder the flow of intra-African trade in goods and services. 5,6Through an examination of the challenges, this section highlights the importance of digitalization in overcoming these obstacles and promoting trade in the AfCFTA region.Additionally, the concept of digitalization and its role in the supply and logistics chain is explored.This information serves as a foundation for the evaluation of the feasibility of digital technologies to enhance the efficiency, visibility, and agility of the AfCFTA's supply and logistics chain.On that note, the AfCFTA has been widely recognized for its potential to drive economic integration on the African continent. 15,16The International Monetary Fund (IMF) ( 17 ) highlights that free trade agreements can facilitate growth and development.This claim has been supported by studies of the WTO, 18 which demonstrates that the success of free trade agreements is not limited to a specific region or continent.In the case of the African continent, the implementation of the AfCFTA could result in a projected combined business and consumer spending of USD 6.7 trillion by 2030. 11he AfCFTA is expected to have a significant impact on various sectors, including industrial and manufacturing development, intra-African cooperation, tourism, and overall economic transformation. 11Additionally, the freedoms of movement of people, goods, services, and capital could further spur growth in the region. 19The AfCFTA is also anticipated to increase competitiveness of the African continent through improved access to cross-border markets, the ability to produce at scale, and better allocation of resources. 19Furthermore, the AfCFTA is expected to foster structural reforms, particularly in the areas of regional SCM and logistics operations, by facilitating the transfer of technology and knowledge. 19The development of regional supply chains has been crucial in driving economic transformation in other regions, 19 and it is believed that the AfCFTA could have a similar impact in Africa.Thus, the AfCFTA has the potential to be a game-changer for the African continent, driving economic integration, competitiveness, and growth.
While the AfCFTA can support and accelerate growth and development of the African continent, its benefits may not be evenly distributed within and across countries. 3,19This is termed the most-favored nation (MFN) principle in the AfCFTA Agreement. 4In addition to the MFN, there are significant challenges associated with the operationalization of the AfCFTA. 6,8,17It is therefore important to note that the successful implementation of the AfCFTA is contingent on several factors, including the cooperation of African nations and the ability to effectively address challenges such as trade barriers and policy implementation. 5,17A recent investigation conducted by Mafimisebi and Ogunsade 5 sheds light on several key challenges that are particularly relevant in the AfCFTA context.These challenges include: 1. Custom procedures and duties; 2. Transportation and delivery costs; 3. Scarcity of reliable payment solutions; 4. Parcel postal competency; 5. Dearth of awareness regarding regional and national rules; as well as 6.Taxation issues such as value-added tax regulations, foreign taxation, and the potential for double taxation.
The findings of the study by Mafimisebi and Ogunsade 5 contribute to a deeper understanding of the complexities associated with cross-border e-commerce trading in Africa and the need for effective strategies to address these challenges.Additionally, the challenges associated with cross-border e-commerce trading vary by industry and are not limited to the aforementioned list.For instance, in the information and communication technology (ICT) and financial services sectors, the key challenges relate to online consumer trust and dispute resolution. 5Hence, it is important to note that the challenges mentioned above are not exhaustive and may vary by industry.The success of the AfCFTA also depends on its effective implementation, which is crucial for promoting intra-African trade and economic growth. 6,7In the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) era, the Protocol on Digital Trade will play a critical role in enabling the successful implementation of the AfCFTA and facilitating cross-border trade activities. 10,13he use of 4IR/digital technologies throughout the value chain should therefore enhance cross-border trade efficiency and effectiveness. 1 This should take into consideration the regional and national, as well as economic and social priorities of the trading parties. 2 The AfCFTA can indeed leverage various 4IR technologies to enhance its operations and promote efficiency in cross-border trade.One such technology is blockchain, which has the potential to automate processes, digitalize documentation, and authorize certain functions using smart contracts.1 Cloud computing can provide multiple enterprises with real-time access to shared information, such as logistics data, inventory data, and capacity data. According to the findings of Hove-Sibanda et al., 21 the implementation of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and social media is contributing to the wider industrial transformation, particularly in the context of South African grocery retail stores.These stores are facing challenges such as late deliveries, damaged stock, theft, high fuel costs, and expired stock from their suppliers.The authors posit that the utilization of IoT and social media technologies, among others, has the potential to mitigate some of these challenges and drive positive change in the retail industry.
Chivunga and Tempest, 1 Lee et al. 22 identified a few other potential uses of 4IR technologies for African markets, including: 1. Blockchain: Blockchain technology has the potential to reduce the need for trust and to ensure accountability.The technology can promote efficiency in cross-border trade by facilitating supply chain financing, customs procedures, reducing fraud and costs in the long run.Its immutable ledger is well-suited for tasks such as real-time tracking of goods along the supply chain, reducing vulnerabilities and ensuring transparency in transactions.2. Artificial Intelligence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML): In Africa's multilingual environment, natural language processing can be a major advantage for businesses as it can aid in language translation, for example, by using state-of-the-art language models such as ChatGPT. 23. Digital learning platforms: Their decentralized nature ensures that education and training, as well as digital skills capacity building, can be accessed at scale and conveniently.
Ahead of the negotiations on the Protocol on Digital Trade for digitalization of the AfCFTA Agreement, it is critical that the AfCFTA state parties take fully into cognizance what digital trade, including e-commerce, can bring to the African markets.

Protocol on Digital Trade
The concept of digital trade, which encompasses e-commerce and digital platforms, involves the procurement of goods and services through digital means.This can take the form of physical deliveries, such as clothing items, as well as digital/electronic deliveries, such as e-books. 14As a crucial aspect of a contemporary economy, digital trade can play a vital role in boosting intra-African trade, as noted by the AfCFTA Secretariat. 10Research by Chivunga and Tempest 1 supports the argument that digitalization can significantly enhance and expedite intra-African trade.This can be achieved through the facilitation of economies of scale via e-commerce channels, promotion of economic integration and inclusive trade, and leveraging of convergent digital technologies Thus, the AfCFTA 24 recognizes the significance of incorporating digital trade into the free trade agreement, with the aim of increasing intra-African trade.Considering these benefits, the AU Assembly established the Protocol on Digital Trade as a fundamental part of the AfCFTA Agreement in 2020.The goal of the Protocol on Digital Trade is to establish rules for governing and facilitating intra-African trade on e-commerce and digital platforms.Therefore, the Council of Ministers established the Committee on Digital Trade, comprised of all AfCFTA participating states, to oversee and guide negotiations on the Protocol on Digital Trade. 24urthermore, it is hoped that the Protocol on Digital Trade will help facilitate e-commerce and intra-African trade to enhance Africa's trading position in the global market.Among others, this can be accomplished through the digitalization of supply chains, which will improve the visibility, agility, and efficiency of the flow of goods and services. 5,9,25This concept is referred to as Supply Chain 4.0 or DSC in the context of digital transformation. 20,26,27The literature supports the conclusion that the integration of digital trade into the AfCFTA is crucial for promoting e-commerce and intra-African trade. 9,14

Digital supply chains
In the literature, the concept of DSC is defined from various perspectives. 28This article adopts the definition provided by Büyüközkan and Göçer, 27 which defines DSC as an intelligent best-fit technological system that leverages the capability of vast data disposal and exceptional cooperation and communication between digital hardware, software, and networks to support and synchronize interactions between organizations, making services more valuable, accessible, and affordable with consistent, agile, and effective outcomes.According to Queiroz et al., 29 this definition suggests that the integration of technology resources with human resources within organizations is necessary to move from a traditional supply chain to a DSC.Therefore, the impact of 4IR, also known as Industry 4.0, on supply chain and logistics processes has resulted in the acceleration and implementation of innovations necessary for the digitalization of the supply chain and logistics industry. 30,31Industry 4.0 involves the convergence of smart manufacturing, IoT, AI, and other digital technologies to provide real-time data on machines, production, and material flows. 32Material flows refer to the physical movement of goods and products within the supply chain, from suppliers to manufacturers, distributors, and ultimately customers. 33s such, DSC represents the digital transformation or application of digital technologies to every aspect of the end-to-end supply chain and logistics processes.Several disruptive and enabling Industry 4.0 technologies play a crucial role in the implementation of DSC, including AI, IoT, big data, and others as below 27,32,[34][35][36]  It is important to acknowledge that the deployment of digital technologies in supply chain and logistics processes is still in its early stages. 37To effectively integrate these technologies, supply chain and logistics practitioners must assess the challenges and opportunities unique to their operations. 38This requires a thorough analysis of requirements and the development of a comprehensive business case.To support the successful digitalization of the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes, a framework for a DSC is necessary.

Digital supply chains framework
Industry 4.0 holds significant potential for the development of novel business models, if there is a heightened level of data-sharing, transparency, and collaborative decision-making stakeholders. 39This is a crucial aspect for ensuring that Industry 4.0 reaches its full potential and drives meaningful change in the business landscape.To provide a comprehensive and systematic guideline for the implementation of Industry 4.0 technologies in the digitalization of the supply chain and logistics processes, Garay-Rondero et al. 35 conducted a review of 137 research works from 1989 to 2019.The authors performed a descriptive analysis to understand the theoretical and conceptual foundations of conventional SCM models.They also analyzed the emerging elements and technological innovations of Industry 4.0 technologies in the digital transformation of traditional supply chains.Drawing on their findings, Garay-Rondero et al. 35 proposed a "DSC Model in Industry 4.0" with six interconnected dimensions, as illustrated in Figure 3.
F I G U R E 3 DSC Model in Industry 4.0.Adapted from Garay-Rondero et al. 35 The DSC Model in Industry 4.0, as presented by Garay-Rondero et al., 35 encompasses six dimensions, namely, (i) cloud computing and cloud robotics, (ii) supply chain network structure, (iii) Industry 4.0 technologies, (iv) supply chain information flows, (v) virtual value chain, and (vi) digital and physical world.It is imperative to note that the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 is an extensive framework, and Figure 3 only depicts its overarching elements, which are the six interrelated dimensions located within both the physical supply chains and digital supply chains. 35,40The digital supply chain, in particular, gives rise to the digital or virtual value chain within the DSC. 35,41The primary objective of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 is to facilitate digital or virtual value creation, which is made possible by the first and core dimension of the model, cloud computing and cloud robotics. 35According to Hofmann and Rüsch, 41 the integration of cloud computing and cloud robotics within the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 is essential for the realization of the DSC value, including availability, digital servitisation and digital integration.In this context, the DSC value of availability refers to autonomously delivering goods and services to the end consumer and thereby creating customer value.On the other hand, digital servitisation is the process through which pay-as-you-use ICT-based services are provided, for example, e-commerce platforms, rather than suppliers acquiring ICT equipment to individually setup services themselves.Lastly, digital integration refers to the convergence of digital technologies that render traceability and transparency along the DSC.
The second dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 pertains to the configuration of the supply chain network.This aspect is interrelated with the SCM processes and SCM components constructs that are executed within the cloud computing and robotics dimension. 35The third dimension entails the integration of Industry 4.0 technologies and the digital transformation of conventional SCM elements through cyber-physical systems. 35,42This is the convergence point of digital technologies in the model, where platforms such as e-commerce and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are present. 35It is acknowledged that digital transformation facilitates data flows within supply chains. 43The fourth dimension of the model appropriately encompasses the information flows within the supply chains, including finished goods flow (outbound), material flow (inbound), services flow, data flow, knowledge flow, financial flow (capital/profit), and risk and return flows of goods and services. 35Information flows pertains to the exchange of data and knowledge among supply chain stakeholders, which is essential for coordination and decision-making. 33s the key mechanism for visualizing the entire DSC through dashboards, the virtual value chain constitutes the fifth dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.It is driven by the data produced in the fourth dimension, the supply chain information flows, and serves as the centerpiece of the model.Data, being a critical component of Industry 4.0 technologies, 44,45 is considered the driving force behind their impact and effectiveness.Despite the significance of high-quality data in the adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies, [45][46][47][48][49] it is worth noting that cloud computing and cloud robotics are positioned by Garay-Rondero et al. 35 as the core of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.The sixth and final dimension of the model is the digital and physical world, which refers to a scenario where DSC activities in the marketplace are performed without human intervention, resulting in a merging of the boundaries between the physical and virtual markets. 40The six dimensions of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 encompass four SCM constructs, which are further divided into 32 components 35 as presented in Table 1.
The SCM constructs integrate the fundamental concepts and responsibilities of SCM with the latest technological advancements towards digitisation, automation, and the growing integration of ICTs in global value chains of supply chain and logistics. 35To summarize, the DSC Model in Industry 4.0's second dimension, as shown in Figure 3, is the DSC network structure, housing the SCM network structure construct.The SCM processes and components constructs operate within the cloud computing and robotics dimension.Lastly, the DSC information flows dimension houses the supply chain (information) flows construct, which is the final SCM construct in Table 1.With reference to Table 1, finished goods flows involve the movement of completed products from the manufacturing facility to warehouses, distribution centers, and finally, to the customers 50 ; services flows pertain to the delivery and management of services throughout the supply chain, such as after-sales support, maintenance, and consultancy 51 ; knowledge flows refer to the exchange and creation of knowledge among supply chain stakeholders, including best practices, lessons learned, and innovation 52 ; and return flows represent the movement of returned products, packaging materials, or waste from customers back to the manufacturer or supplier for various reasons, such as repair, recycling, or disposal. 53In the next section, I outline the approach utilized to examine the potential digital technologies to enhance the supply and logistics value chain of the AfCFTA, with the goal of boosting intra-African trade.

METHODS
This article employed secondary data in the form of the nine Annexes and the corresponding Articles of the Protocol on Trade in Goods under the AfCFTA as the basis for analysis.Table 2 provides a summary of the sampling technique and the publicly accessible data at the time of writing.
The validity and reliability of the data were established due to its publication on a reputable online government platform.As a result, a qualitative content analysis approach was utilized for the analysis of the documents. 54To contextualize the content analysis, the four SCM constructs, and their corresponding 32 components outlined in Table 1 were used as the framework to interpret the Annexes of the AfCFTA Protocol on Trade in Goods.This was accomplished through the description of the features and characteristics of the document content and the drawing of implications from this content. 55This methodology was employed to address the first research objective, which was to identify the supply chain and logistics processes specified within the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA.
The process of deductively inferring the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA against the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 (see Figure 3) was utilized to address the second research objective.In this process, deductive reasoning was utilized to draw conclusions about the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA by examining them considering the digital technologies associated with the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.That is, I discuss the potential digital technologies that can be applied to the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA to enhance visibility, agility and efficiency of the flow of intra-African trade in goods and services.This involved starting with premises that are considered to be true (that is, the Industry 4.0 Technologies dimension of the DSC Model in Figure 3) and using logical reasoning to arrive at a conclusion about the potential digital technologies applicable to the supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA.

Identification of AfCFTA supply chain and logistics processes
To address the first research objective, the study examined the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA and mapped its supply chain and logistics processes to the four SCM constructs (SCM processes, SCM components, SCM network structure, and supply chain flows) as previously presented in Table 1.The data and extensive results that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.A condensed summary of the identified AfCFTA supply chain and logistics processes within the Protocol on Trade in Goods is presented in Table 3.The analysis revealed that the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA adheres to conventional supply chain processes, with limited reference to digital technologies in the Protocol's Annexes.The only mention of information technology (IT) systems is found in Article 17 of Annex 4 (Trade Facilitation), which emphasizes the use of IT tools such as ERP systems, electronic certificates, data exchange systems, electronic application forms, and computerized customs clearance systems.These findings imply that there are opportunities for digitalization within the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA.

Digitalization of AfCFTA supply chain and logistics processes
The second research objective sought to determine how the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA could be digitalised to enhance visibility, agility, and efficiency in the flow of intra-African trade in goods and services.
To achieve this, the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 (see Figure 3) was employed as a basis for deducing potential digital technologies that could be applied to the processes summarized in Table 3.The summarized results of this analysis are illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 4 demonstrates that the AfCFTA Protocol on Trade in Goods incorporates some aspects of trade facilitation using ICTs.For clarity, the AfCFTA ICTs are categorized under the Industry 4.0 Technologies dimension in the figure, although they may not necessarily be 4IR technologies.The analysis further reveals that the Industry 4.0 Technologies dimension is interrelated with the remaining five dimensions of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, indicating that the digitalization of supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA is influenced by factors such as information flow and the supply chain network structure.
However, some textual data from the AfCFTA Protocol on Trade in Goods could not be aligned with any of the six dimensions of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.This includes aspects such as customs law, articles, and the prevention, investigation and suppression of customs offenses, which primarily concern legal aspects of trade facilitation related to cross-border trade and its supply chain and logistics processes.Despite this, the lack of mapping of these textual data to any of the dimensions of the model did not impact the overall results of the analysis.

Implications for digital transformation in AfCFTA
The findings presented in this section emphasize the potential for digital transformation within the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes.The identified processes present opportunities for digitalization of the various AfCFTA's information systems, such as electronic declaration and payment systems, data management and exchange systems, and capacity building systems for customs officials. 1,2,5,20By leveraging digitalization of these systems, the AfCFTA can enhance efficiency, reduce errors, and streamline trade-related processes, ultimately increasing competitiveness in global markets.The more detailed and specific implications of the findings are discussed in the next section.

DISCUSSION
The objective of this article was to assess the potential impact of digital technologies on optimizing the supply and logistics chain of the AfCFTA and increasing intra-African trade in goods and services.The first research objective aimed to identify the supply chain and logistics processes included in the Protocol on Trade in Goods of the AfCFTA.This was achieved by comparing the characteristics and features of the Protocol on Trade in Goods against four SCM constructs of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 (see Table 1 and Figure 3).The results of the first research objective are presented in Figure 4.
The second research objective aimed to determine how the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA can be digitalised to increase visibility, agility, and efficiency in the flow of intra-African trade in goods and services.
The findings to the second research objective were derived by comparing the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA against the six dimensions of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.These findings are also summarized in Figure 4.In this section, the implications of the overall findings are examined through the four SCM constructs of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 to determine if the aim of the article was achieved.

SCM network structure construct
The results of the SCM network structure construct, which is situated in the DSC network structure dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, indicate that the identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA such as suppliers, raw materials and production processes should be digitalised with appropriate 4IR technologies.As previously discussed in the literature-Section 2 of the article-various technological solutions may be employed for the purpose of digitalizing suppliers, raw materials, and production processes.Some of these technological solutions include 1,2,20,27,32,[34][35][36] : 1. Supplier relationship management software: To manage suppliers and ensure timely delivery of raw materials.

ERP systems:
To streamline and integrate an entity's internal processes and data management.

IoT devices:
To monitor and control production processes in real-time, including tracking of raw materials delivery.

AI and ML:
To optimize production processes and reduce waste.

Cloud computing:
To store and access large amounts of data and collaborate with suppliers and customers in real-time.

Blockchain technology:
To increase transparency, security and efficiency in supply chain transactions.

AR and VR technologies:
To visualize and simulate production processes, and to train workers.
These technological solutions were discussed in the literature.For instance, Büyüközkan and Göçer 27 emphasize the importance of data-driven decision-making in digital supply chains, while Chauhan and Singh 32 highlight the potential of IoT devices in real-time monitoring and control of production processes.The findings in this article support the notion that implementing digital technologies within the AfCFTA could enhance visibility, agility, and efficiency in the supply chain and logistics processes, thus contributing to increased intra-African trade.Next, I discuss the findings in relation to the SCM processes construct.

SCM processes
I found no direct correspondence between the AfCFTA data and the SCM processes construct of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, which, according to Garay-Rondero et al., 35 operates within the cloud computing and robotics dimension of the DSC framework.This is highlighted by the "No aspects of this from the analyzed data" indicator in Figure 4.This suggests a need for the AfCFTA to adopt a framework like the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 to enhance the digitalization of supply chain and logistics processes through the Protocol on Digital Trade.In the literature, several authors have discussed potential areas for further development in digitalizing these processes, 1,2,5,20 including: 1. E-commerce and cross-border online trading: Developing a harmonized framework for cross-border e-commerce transactions and reducing barriers to online trade.2. Digital payment systems and financial integration: Encouraging the use of digital payment systems and financial integration to facilitate cross-border transactions.3. Cybersecurity and data protection: Establishing minimum standards for data protection and cybersecurity to secure cross-border digital transactions.4. Logistics and transportation: Facilitating the use of digital technologies, such as blockchain and IoT, to improve logistics and transportation processes.5. Digital infrastructure and connectivity: Promoting investment in digital infrastructure and connectivity to support the growth of digital trade and cross-border transactions.6.Digital skills and capacity building: Supporting the development of digital skills and capacity building to enhance the digitalization of the supply chain and logistics processes.7. Cooperation and collaboration: Encouraging cooperation and collaboration between AfCFTA member states to harmonize and standardize the digital aspects of the supply chain and logistics processes.
The SCM processes construct findings underscore the importance of considering the above bulleted aspects when adopting a digital supply chain framework for the AfCFTA.By integrating these areas, the AfCFTA can better leverage digital technologies to improve supply chain and logistics processes, ultimately facilitating increased intra-African trade.Next, I discuss the findings in relation to the SCM components construct, which is also located within the cloud computing and robotics dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 framework.

SCM components
Like the SCM processes construct, I found no direct alignment between the AfCFTA data and the SCM components construct of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.This again highlights the need for the AfCFTA to adopt a framework like the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 to enhance the digitalization of supply chain and logistics components through the Protocol on Digital Trade.The SCM components construct of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 includes structural management components, for example, organizational structure, ICTs and workflows, and behavioral management components, for example, management methods, culture and attitudes, and trust and commitment.Furthermore, the SCM components encompass physical and/or digital components of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, such as AR/VR, cybersecurity, e-commerce, and smart factories. 355][36] Therefore, technologies such as IoT, AI, ML, blockchain, and cloud computing can be utilized to enhance the capabilities of these components, leading to better inventory management, tracking, and forecasting, as well as improved transportation and logistics.For instance, Ben-Daya et al. 34 highlight the role of IoT devices in monitoring the real-time location of inventory, while Chivunga and Tempest 1 discuss the advantages of using AI/ML for demand forecasting and inventory management.Furthermore, blockchain technology has been suggested as a solution for increasing transparency and traceability in the supply chain, thus improving trust among stakeholders. 20,35By incorporating these technologies into the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes, the member states can increase efficiency, visibility, and agility, which in turn can contribute to the growth of intra-African trade.This discussion also addresses the supply chain flows construct, which is located within the supply chain information flows dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.

Supply chain flows
The AfCFTA data did not directly align with the supply chain flows construct of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.This construct, comprising material flow, information flow, financial flow, return flows, knowledge flows, finished products flows, and services flows, is crucial for the seamless functioning of a DSC.The literature emphasizes the importance of effectively managing and synchronizing these flows to achieve a responsive and efficient supply chain. 2,32,35As corroborated by the literature, the supply chain flows can be digitalised as follows: 1. Material flow: Industry 4.0 technologies can play a significant role in optimizing material flow, such as IoT for real-time tracking of goods, AVs for transportation and robotics for handling and warehousing 27,36 (Ivanov & Dolgui, 2019).2. Information flows: Digital technologies such as cloud computing, big data analytics and AI can enable real-time data sharing, integration and analysis, leading to improved visibility, collaboration and responsiveness. 1,32,34. Return flows: Industry 4.0 technologies such as IoT and data analytics can help in better tracking and management of return flows, facilitating reverse logistics, and circular economy initiatives.56,57 5. Knowledge flows: By leveraging digital technologies such as cloud computing, social networks and AI, organizations can facilitate knowledge flows and collaboration, leading to continuous improvement, innovation, and competitiveness.52 6. Finished products flows: Industry 4.0 technologies such as IoT, AVs and robotics can optimize these flows, ensuring on-time delivery, reduced inventory levels, and improved customer satisfaction.36 7. Services flows: Digital technologies like IoT, AI, and AR can enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of services flows.
These could provide personalized and timely support to customers and improving the overall customer experience. 58,59pecifically, some of the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes that can be digitalised include those presented in the literature by Chivunga and Tempest, 1 Mafimisebi and Ogunsade, 5 Pagano and Liotine, 20 and Tavengerwei et al. 2 : 1. Electronic declaration (information flow): The AfCFTA can implement a digital system for declaration of customs duties, which would streamline the process and reduce errors.2. Electronic payment (financial flow): Digital payment options can be made available for custom duties, which would reduce the need for physical transactions and increase efficiency.By integrating the supply chain flows construct within the AfCFTA, the member states can optimize material, knowledge, financial, and other supply chain flows, thus enhancing the efficiency and responsiveness of their supply chains.This will, in turn, facilitate the growth of intra-African trade and contribute to the overall economic development of the African continent.

Insights from the findings
The overall findings demonstrate that there was no discernible correspondence between the AfCFTA data and three of the six dimensions of the model, namely, the cloud computing and robotics, digital and physical world, and virtual value chain dimensions.This reinforces the argument in this article for the AfCFTA to adopt a DSC framework such as the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, as a guideline, for the purpose of digitalizing the supply chain and logistics processes within the framework of the AfCFTA Agreement via the Protocol on Digital Trade.Moreover, the findings indicate that the Protocol on Trade in Goods within the AfCFTA lacks explicit language regarding the intention and how to digitalize the supply chain and logistics processes of the Agreement.As previously stated, all annexes of this Protocol barely reference 4IR technologies, and only briefly mention the use of IT in Article 17, Annex 4 (Trade Facilitation).Therefore, this article empirically presents a case for the AfCFTA to adopt a DSC framework such as the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 for the purpose of accelerating intra-African trade in goods and services through optimization of digital supply chains via the Protocol on Digital Trade.This is the first contribution of the article.As stated by Garay-Rondero et al., 35 the aim of the Industry 4.0 DSC Model is to achieve digital or virtual value creation, powered by cloud computing and cloud robotics as the foundational and central dimension of the model.However, it was consistently asserted in the literature that at the heart of all Industry 4.0 technologies lies data, which functions as the primary driving force and key determinant of its impact.Considering this observation, this article puts forward a suggestion that the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 be re-evaluated with data occupying a central role within the model.(Big) data should therefore be the first and core dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0.Figure 5 shows the proposed DSC Model in Industry 4.0 with data at the heart of the model.Afterall, a DSC is "an intelligent best-fit technological system that is based on the capability of massive data … ." 27This is the second contribution of the article.
It is important to emphasize that the entries captured within the six dimensions in Figure 5, for example, robotics, material flows and suppliers are merely a demonstration of how digitalization can be achieved within the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes.The purpose of this illustration is to showcase the potential for digitalization and should not be considered as a complete or exhaustive representation of the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes.Therefore, the information on the AfCFTA should not be included as part of the proposed revision of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 in Figure 5. Nonetheless, this information on the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes addresses the first research objective in this article.The information, as presented in Figure 5, also addresses the second research objective of the article as the mapping of the data showcases the potential for digitalization of the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes within the six dimensions of the revised DSC framework.

F I G U R E 5 Revised DSC framework
Furthermore, the DSC framework depicted in Figure 5 can be embraced by the AfCFTA as a means of promoting intra-African trade in goods and services through the optimization of supply chain processes.This framework may prove useful in facilitating negotiations surrounding the Protocol on Digital Trade, which may still be ongoing or have yet to commence at the time of writing.Ultimately, to enhance the economic significance of the national, regional, and African continental markets, the digitalization of the supply chain and logistics processes must extend beyond mere technological advancements.The utilization of digital technologies in the Industry 4.0 Technologies dimension of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 will only be effective in optimizing the AfCFTA's supply and logistics value chain if integrated with the other five dimensions.As noted by Queiroz et al., 29 a comprehensive combination of technology resources and human resources is required to transition from a traditional supply chain to a DSC.Thus, Figure 5 encapsulates the main contribution of this article to accelerating the AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes through optimization of digital supply chains.Lastly, the implementation of a DSC framework necessitates the utilization of effective systems implementation tools, such as the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). 60The objective is to ensure that digitalization, represented by the Industry 4.0 Technologies dimension, does not occur in isolation, as the other five dimensions of the DSC framework are equally important.
In addition, it is worth noting that the implementation of digital technologies by the AfCFTA will be directed by the unique requirements of individual entities and AfCFTA Agreement signatories.As previously discussed in the literature, Hofmann and Rüsch 41 posits that the digital or virtual value creation in a DSC framework, as outlined by Garay-Rondero et al., 35 encompasses availability, servitisation, and digital integration.Hence, when implementing a DSC framework utilizing a tool such as the SDLC, the AfCFTA should perform a thorough analysis of their state parties' needs and requirements, taking into consideration all six dimensions of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 or similar DSC frameworks.This requires the production of a comprehensive functional requirements document, which covers each dimension of the DSC framework in relation to Industry 4.0 technologies, to be leveraged for the creation of digital value.

Contributions and concluding remarks
This article has highlighted the potential of digital technologies in optimizing the supply and logistics chain of the AfCFTA to increase intra-African trade in goods and services.I have identified key supply chain and logistics processes in the AfCFTA and discussed how they can be digitalised using various Industry 4.0 technologies.The findings suggest that the AfCFTA should adopt a comprehensive digital supply chain framework, such as the DSC Model in Industry 4.0, to better leverage digital technologies for enhancing supply chain and logistics processes.By implementing this recommendation, the AfCFTA can significantly contribute to the growth of intra-African trade and the overall economic development of the African continent.This is the first and practical contribution of the article.The second and theoretical contribution of this article lies in the re-evaluation and proposal of a revised DSC framework with data at its core, which builds upon the works of Garay-Rondero et al. 35 and has implications for both academia and practice.

Implications to theory and practice
The findings of this article contribute to the theoretical understanding and practical application of DSC and Industry 4.0 in the context of the AfCFTA.By emphasizing the centrality of data in optimizing supply chain and logistics operations and proposing a revised DSC framework, the study expands the existing body of knowledge in SCM and Industry 4.0 literature.
Theoretical implications: 1.The article proposes a DSC framework with data at its core, building upon and extending the work of Garay-Rondero et al. 35 This revised framework advances the current understanding of the interplay between data-driven decision-making and Industry 4.0 technologies in SCM. 2. The study's emphasis on data as a key determinant of the impact of Industry 4.0 technologies reinforces the necessity for further research on the role of data analytics, AI, and ML in driving supply chain performance and resilience.3. The article's analysis of the AfCFTA's Protocol on Trade in Goods and the potential benefits of digital technologies in enhancing SCM and logistics processes highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between regional trade agreements and digital transformation.
Practical implications: 1.The proposed DSC framework offers a valuable tool for policymakers and practitioners involved in the AfCFTA's Committee on Digital Trade.The framework can serve as a guide for negotiations on the Protocol on Digital Trade, ensuring that digitalization initiatives align with the specific needs and objectives of the AfCFTA.2. The insights gained from the study can inform the development of best practices for the implementation of digital technologies within the AfCFTA context.This includes identifying suitable Industry 4.0 technologies, data management strategies, and regulatory frameworks that promote efficient, secure, and sustainable supply chain operations.3. By highlighting the potential benefits of digitalization in enhancing the efficiency and competitiveness of the AfCFTA Agreement, the study offers a compelling case for governments, businesses and other stakeholders to invest in digital infrastructure, capacity building and innovation to harness the full potential of Industry 4.0 technologies in intra-African trade.

Key lessons learned
The key highlights and lessons learned through this research article are: 1. Industry 4.0 has disrupted traditional SCM and logistics processes, making digitalization essential for competitiveness.
2. The AfCFTA's supply chain and logistics processes can be effectively mapped to potential digital technologies using a DSC framework.
3. The integration of e-commerce and digital technologies has fundamentally changed the execution of supply chain and logistics operations.
I, therefore, argue that the article has empirically highlighted the importance of digitalization and the adoption of appropriate digital technologies in enhancing the efficiency and competitiveness of SCM and logistics operations in the context of the AfCFTA Agreement.

Limitations of the research
According to Article 42 on Transitional Arrangements of the AfCFTA's Annexes, which served as the primary source document or secondary data for this study, some outstanding issues existed at the time of data analysis.These issues include the implementation of decisions regarding value added, clarification of concepts such as "their vessels" and "their factory ships", and the drafting of AfCFTA rules of origin manuals.Although these limitations may affect the availability of data, it is believed that they do not significantly impact the interpretation of the key data pertaining to the two research objectives addressed in this article.Another limitation to note is the reliance solely on textual content analysis in the examination of the primary source documents.While it is acknowledged that the results may not have been significantly altered, it is recognized that the incorporation of additional documentary research techniques could have resulted in a more nuanced outcome.

Future work directions
Considering the article's research limitations acknowledged in the previous section and the insights drawn from the study, several future research directions are proposed: 1. Assessing the impact of digital technologies on specific supply chain and logistics processes within the AfCFTA Agreement: Considering the limitations in the availability of data, future research could focus on conducting in-depth case studies or empirical research to measure the actual impact of digitalization on the efficiency and competitiveness of SCM and logistics operations in the AfCFTA context.2. Comparing and evaluating the effectiveness of different DSC frameworks: A comparative analysis of the DSC framework proposed in this article and other DSC frameworks could identify the best practices for adopting digital technologies within the AfCFTA Agreement.Such research may lead to an enhanced understanding of how various digitalization strategies can be tailored to different industries, supply chain structures and regional contexts.3. Investigating alternative documentary research methods: Given the limitations of content analysis highlighted in this article, future research could employ alternative documentary research methods, such as discourse analysis or thematic analysis, to provide a more nuanced understanding of the AfCFTA's Protocol on Trade in Goods and the role of digitalization in enhancing supply chain and logistics processes.4. Examining the influence of regulatory and policy frameworks on digitalization of AfCFTA's SCM and logistics processes: Although considerable research exists on the impact of digitalization in Africa, future research could explore how various regulatory and policy frameworks, including data protection and privacy regulations and digital trade policies, specifically impact the adoption and effectiveness of digital technologies on AfCFTA's SCM and logistics processes.5. Assessing the impact of digital infrastructure and capacity building on intra-African trade: Future research could explore the role of digital infrastructure and capacity building initiatives in enhancing AfCFTA's supply chain efficiency and competitiveness, and ultimately promoting intra-African trade in goods and services.
By addressing these future research directions, scholars, policymakers, and practitioners can gain valuable insights into the role of digitalization in enhancing the efficiency and competitiveness of supply chain and logistics operations within the AfCFTA context.This will contribute to the broader goal of promoting intra-African trade in goods and services.Additionally, it will help enhance Africa's trading position in the global market.

F I G U R E 4
Potential digitalization areas of the supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA

3 . 4 .
Data management (data flow): The AfCFTA can establish a centralized digital database to store and manage trade-related information, making it easily accessible to all relevant stakeholders.Data exchange (data flow): The AfCFTA can develop secure and standardized protocols for digital data exchange between countries, allowing for real-time access to trade-related information.5.Training (knowledge flow):The AfCFTA can provide capacity building to customs officials on the use of digital technologies, to ensure effective implementation and adoption of the Agreement.
35M constructs of the DSC Model in Industry 4.0 by Garay-Rondero et al.35Primary source documents and sampling technique T A B L E 1 Identified supply chain and logistics processes of the AfCFTA