Regulation and impact of VOC and CO2 emissions on low‐carbon energy systems resilient to climate change: A case study on an environmental issue in the oil and gas industry

The impact of emissions from the fuel and energy sectors adversely affects the environment on the economies of countries. One of these pollutants is volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone. Emissions of hydrocarbon formation in the form of VOCs occur in four stages of the fuel and energy industry sector: (1) production, (2) processing, (3) transportation, and (4) storage. The oil and gas industry ranks among the top polluting industries in terms of VOC emissions. Research on the negative impact of VOCs, as well as CO2 emissions from the consequences of the extraction, processing, transport, and storage of oil and gas on the ecosystem of the planet and the population, has begun to be studied by science recently. Typically, these studies were conducted using laboratory and field analyses, as well as using data on anthropogenic emissions in the development of regulatory documents and requirements governing the control of VOC and CO2 emissions in the oil and gas industry. This paper presents a critical analysis of the literature on research on the negative effects of VOC emissions on the ecosystem and human health because of such factors as production, processing, transportation, and storage of hydrocarbons. This analysis shows the global magnitude of VOC emissions. Data from human‐made emissions from the oil and gas industry and direct emissions from transportation and energy processing were used to figure out how VOCs affect the environment around the world and how far they spread. In conclusion, this study found patterns of VOC emissions that show how important it is to control VOCs during the production, processing, transportation, and storage of oil and gas, as well as how important it is to create a single research base on emissions for each industry sector and on sources of greenhouse gas absorption.


| INTRODUCTION
Hydrocarbons are one of the major sources of environmental pollution, including atmospheric pollution and water ecosystem pollution not only in the region's industry but also globally. 1,2 Looking at the world's proven hydrocarbon reserves, they are estimated at more than a trillion barrels, which demonstrates the global need for energy resource extraction, industrial production, and transport. 3 Extraction of hydrocarbons includes the stages of production, transport, processing, and storage. 4 These stages seriously affect the environment in a human-caused form, contaminating soil, water, and air directly through spills and leaks during transportation and storage. The severity of hydrocarbon pollution depends on the scale of oil refining and storage during transportation, as more operations from the well to the refinery will lead to a higher likelihood of environmental pollution. 5 Oil and spills of oil products usually occur due to the malfunction of equipment, human factors, and the inevitability of hazardous emissions into the atmosphere when a mass of oil, with or without any control measures, leaks out uncontrollably. 6 For example, the study of literature shows that at least 80% of all accidental spills of oil and oil products on oil tankers around the world in 2021, of which about 70% happened during ship operations, were caused by humans. 7 Since some hydrocarbons, such as oil, according to their chemical composition, are classified as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the consequences of the contamination of territories with hydrocarbons because of accidents are limited not only to polluted areas of the seas and land. When VOCs enter the atmosphere, they pose serious problems for the ecosystem.
Apart from CO, CO 2 , H 2 CO 3 , (NH 4 )2CO 3 , and VOC are chemically natural such that they can be released as a gas-air mixture from a solid or liquid state. As Zhang et al. point out, VOC can come from natural and anthropogenic sources, 1150 tera-grams of carbon per year (Tg C × year −1 ) and 142 Tg C × year −1 . 8 Naturally occurring VOCs are formed by biogenic reactions on land and in the ocean, through natural biological forms of mobilization and absorption of CO 2 from the air, water, minerals, underwater volcanoes, nitrogen, and beached mammals and fishes. Anthropogenic (caused by humans) VOCs are produced by numerous factors, primarily through evaporation during transport, storage, and combustion of fossil fuels. Masnadi et al. argue that the bulk of VOC emissions, which is about 16%, occur in the process of oil and gas processing. 4 According to the analysis of emissions into the atmosphere, during the explosion that occurred on April 20, 2010, on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform in the Macondo field in the Gulf of Mexico, about 258 tons/ day evaporated hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. 9 These figures demonstrate the magnitude and scope of the problem. After vehicle exhaust emissions, the oil and gas processing industry's production facilities were identified as the second most significant source of VOC. 10 For example, the inventory of anthropogenic emissions in Russia shows that the oil and gas industries have a significant impact on the environment. 11 Pashkevich and Petrova propose to create a system of environmental monitoring in the objects under study, following the example of a two-level structure of automated monitoring of the state of the environment in Russia, with a gasoline engine, biomass combustion, landfills, and waste processing. 11,12 By composition, petroleum compounds are hydrocarbons with an average composition of alkanes of about 30% and five or more carbon atoms (≥C5), cycloalkanes of about 49%, aromatics of about 15%, and asphalt of about 6%. 13 Light hydrocarbons in petroleum, such as alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons with ≤C15, tend to volatilize into their high vapor into the atmosphere due to pressure and low boiling point, forming a major subset of atmospheric VOC. Wei et al. indicated that VOCs have a significant impact on the ecosystem through the formation of harmful oxidants, including photochemical ozone (O 3 ). 14, 15 Koss et al. point to the interaction of nitrogen oxide (NO and NO 2 ) with ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and hexane, which enter the atmosphere because of VOC emissions and form tropospheric ozone. 16 For this reason, it can be argued that emissions from transport oil handling and storage are also thought to be responsible for the increase in ozone in the atmosphere 17 and as a component of global warming. 18 In the literature analyzed by the authors, it was possible to see that the negative impact of VOC emissions during the transport and storage of hydrocarbons on the ecosystem was studied directly using laboratory-field analyses and the national inventory of the impacts of emissions to the environment resulting from the purpose of regulating anthropogenic emissions from the oil industry. 12,19 So, based on the State Report of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation for the year 2019, a list of factors that affect the ecosystem was made. Figure 1 shows the annual average and average maximum concentrations of the main pollutants.
The impact of VOCs on the ecosystem was studied using diverse authors' analytical materials, which were used in the main mechanisms of the analytical mechanism of impact on the soil. [19][20][21][22] In their works, Saeed et al. and Salih et al. look at the problems caused by VOC and CO 2 emissions that happen at different stages of making, processing, transporting, and storing oil and gas. 23,24 In another report conducted by Rajabi et al., a large amount of information on the magnitude of VOC emissions in the oil and gas industries was highlighted. 25 Thus, the environmental implications of VOC emissions from oil and gas firms are described in Figure 2. This figure depicts the primary effects of VOC chemical components such as toluene, ethylbenzene, benzene, and others on the ecosystem. [26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] The research goal of this study is to find long-term ways to get rid of VOCs and figure out where they are in the world. For this purpose, this article is organized as follows: Section 2 analyzes the impact of VOCs on the ecosystem. Section 3 provides research methods, describes the problem of legal regulation of VOCs and F I G U R E 1 Average concentrations of volatile organic compound and CO 2 in the atmospheric air and according to the data of regular observations in 2019 F I G U R E 2 Main environmental impacts of volatile organic compound (VOC) CO 2 , and discusses the role of carbon. Section 4 presents the results of the study and discusses the impact of oil VOC emissions, indicators for VOC analysis, and emission control. Section 5 is devoted to conclusions and recommendations.

| IMPACT OF VOCS ON THE ECOSYSTEM
The International Energy Agency (IEA) has classified benzene (C 6 H 6 ), toluene (C 7 H 8 ), ethylbenzene (C 6 H 5 CH 2 CH 3 ), and xylene (CH 3 )2C 6 H 4 as chemicals and carcinogens (Groups A and D) that adversely affect human, animal, and plant health. 35- 37 The composition of hydrocarbon raw materials contains more than a thousand organic substances with varying toxicity. The heavier the components are, the more toxic they are for the lungs, and the toxicity of the mixture of carbohydrates is higher than the toxicity of the individual components. Some carcinogenic hydrocarbons are capable of bioaccumulation since when toxic components of hydrocarbon raw materials, such as oil-soaked soil, are turned into even more toxic compounds, they can adsorb and concentrate in trophic chains through which these toxins enter the human body. Since light hydrocarbons are neurotropic and have an irritating effect, and liquid hydrocarbons with several atoms between 5 and 16 also have an irritating effect, they can cause the central nervous system to be overstimulated for a long time and have a bad effect on the heart and blood vessels. 38 The widespread use of oil and oil products in industry and human life has led to pollution of the planet's ecosystem. On the basis of estimates published by the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Statistical Review of World Energy 2020 by British oil and gas company British Petroleum, the annual oil production is 4484.5 million tons (Table 1) (Annual Statistical Bulletin 2020). 3,37 For example, in Russia, losses in the production of crude oil amount to 5% of the total production, and simultaneously, soil contamination occurs at drilling sites during production and at collection and preparation points. The scale of VOC pollution shows an increase due to the operation of oil depots, oil storage facilities, and railroad transportation. This leads to the contamination of soil with hydrocarbons. Therefore, the mineralization processes slow down, and the ability to self-purify its biological structure decreases. Nowadays, the soil of most industrial regions needs remedial measures to restore it. The effect of hydrocarbons on the environment can be used to explain why there are more people living in industrial areas.
Biological methods are diverse and based on the ability of contaminated substrates to self-purify. So, for example, Korelskiy et al. wrote about biological methods associated with the introduction of microbiological preparations into the polluting environment with strains of microorganisms capable of absorbing hydrocarbons. 39 These methods are used to clean up contaminated areas and materials in landfills. The most effective methods are called methods of cleaning oil-contaminated substrates, which are based on the activation of microbiological destruction of oil. The main disadvantages of biological methods are the long process of oil biodegradation; low efficiency at moderate levels of pollution; and there is also an acute problem of providing aerobic conditions in the treated substrate since the rate of aerobic decomposition of oil hydrocarbons is characterized by low intensity. For this reason, special attention is paid to the impact of VOC on those people who are employed at various stages of oil production, refining, and transportation. 14,15,26,28,30,33,34,40  samples were taken, and they were all higher than exposure limits for benzene, toluene, and xylene. 41,42 Also, Gonzalez et al. examined the effects and impacts of the activities of companies engaged in oil and gas preproduction, and an analysis was made of the influence of the number of drilling sites and the volume of oil and gas activities on concentrations of five ambient air pollutants in California. Besides, Heibati et al. studied the effects of benzene, toluene, and xylene in four of Iran's main oil companies. They found that people who are responsible for loading oil and petroleum products into marine oil tankers (as well as those responsible for measuring the level of marine oil tankers and vessels) were most exposed to VOC, and serious health problems were found in workers who had direct participation in the loading of oil and petroleum products into marine oil tankers. 43 In the oil, gas, and chemical industries in advanced economies, union organizations educate workers about potential health risks and personal protection requirements. But, as already mentioned, VOCs can cause damage that people cannot feel. This puts the health of people who live near large oil and gas fields, petrochemical plants, and oil and gas refineries at risk. 32,44,45 On the one hand, Cordes et al., Johnston et al., and Zakari et al. investigated the need for in-depth statistical analysis to study the adverse effects of VOCs on the environment and the human ecosystem. [46][47][48] On the other hand, Finkel and Hays mentioned that living close to large oil and gas fields and industries, which have a direct link with VOC emissions, has a major effect on people's health. 49 Fundamental research is also needed to close the gaps in VOC monitoring technology to create effective, inexpensive, portable certified instruments to improve the monitoring, capture, and utilization of VOCs.

| Issues of legal regulation of VOC and CO 2 emissions
Since the main objective of the study was to assess the possibility of increasing energy efficiency and reducing VOC and CO 2 emissions based on Russian and international experience, the conclusions drawn do not contain assessments of any scientific, political, or legislative decisions. Different Russian and international regulatory documents set different limits on the amount of VOCs that can be emitted. Thus, the federal law of the Russian Federation dated July 21, 2014, No. 219-FZ "On environmental protection" reoriented the vector of industrial development to the principles of the best available technologies (BAT) and the harmonization of environmental legislation with international norms and requirements. 50 In accordance with the provisions of federal law, objects that have an impact on the environment are classified into four categories according to the degree of negative impact on the environment, each of which is subject to various measures of state regulation. Crude oil and natural gas extraction activities are classified as BAT and included in category I, as having the most significant negative impact on the environment.
At the same time, there is no general international control and restrictive policy on vapor emissions from oil and oil products in relation to the OPEC. A comparison of existing documents is shown in Table 2.
All the above standards aim to introduce restrictive industry-specific policies to reduce VOC emissions and to protect oil and gas workers exposed to pollutants with effective protective equipment for industry workers. 15 In this case, the oil and gas industry is one of the main sources of VOCs polluting the ecosystem. 51 VOC emission control measures such as vapor recovery systems, emission control systems, sequential biofiltration, polyurethane foam gelling material, thin films of surfactants, water foam, and water foam embedded in clay nanoparticles are used in the transportation and loading of crude oil from offshore loading ports. 10,52 At the same time, there is no control over the oil refining chain. As a result, crude oil fields release a large amount of VOC into the air every year, which hurts the ecosystem. The statistical analysis results revealed a quantitative dependence on the origin of VOCs in the atmosphere. Lee et al. point to the need to study this problem through control methods since existing methods require installation and maintenance costs, which can be expensive for the industry. 53 As a result, this can lead to an increase in the cost of products for the final consumer. Fundamental research is also needed to fill in the gaps in VOC monitoring technology to make effective, cheap, portable, certified instruments that can be used to better monitor, capture, and utilize VOCs.

| Achieving climate objectives
Today, many international agreements to achieve climate goals, including zero emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere, will require technologies and ways to remove the produced carbon. In a special report called "Global Warming by 1.5°C," 54 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasized the importance of reducing carbon footprints to fight negative climate change. Out of the 90 simulated scenarios that the IPCC looked at, 88 of them were based on the idea that some level of net negative emissions would keep future temperature increases to 1.5°C or less.
At the same time, there are several methods and technologies for removing carbon from the atmosphere. These include using CO 2 through the natural interactions of the ecosystem, reforestation, which speeds up the natural process of renewing oxygen to the soil and the planet, adding biochar, which can be made from biomass, and using carbon removal technologies that are supported by carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies, such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and direct air capture (DACS).
As for the BECCS and DACS, they contribute to the energy sector's carbon sequestration, but if these capture and reclamation projects are successful, they can mitigate the slower progress in emission reductions outside the energy sector. But, unlike BECCS, DACS is not limited by the amount of sustainable biomass that is available. Instead, it is limited by the amount of cheap energy that is available.
Methods and technologies for capturing and utilizing CO 2 on an industrial scale are difficult to implement due to the high cost of the technology. Such industrial technologies are needed in international and intercity transport. All technologies are a kind of hedge, although they do not completely replace all investment risks expected from innovation or technology commercialization. There are 21 capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) methods in the world today that can capture 40 facilities emitting one million tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (Mt CO 2 ) every year. For example, some of these methods have been implemented in US industrial facilities since the 1980s, at natural gas and crude oil refineries in the Val Verde region of Texas, where industrial capture and storage began to be supplied to oil producers for supply operations, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR).
The first large-scale VOC-CO 2 project to capture, monitor, store, and reclaim CO 2 was commissioned in T A B L E 2 Comparison with international standards of the emission control system

Main documents
The 1979 convention on long-range transboundary air pollution It is intended to protect the human environment against air pollution and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution. It is implemented by the Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). To introduce restrictive industry-specific policies to reduce volatile organic emissions and to protect oil and gas workers exposed to pollutants with effective protective equipment for industry workers. 15 Abbreviations: CVE, Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; EPA, Environmental Protection Agency; GHGs, greenhouse gases; VOCs, volatile organic compounds.
the Sleipner offshore gas field in Norway in 1996, where more than 20 Mt CO 2 is currently stored in a deep aquifer. The technical and commercial requirements of international standards require CO 2 to be removed from gas before it can be sold in the market. To stimulate compliance with the requirements to reduce CO 2 in hydrocarbons, the Norwegian government introduced a tax on offshore oil and gas activities in 1991, which contributed to the introduction of requirements to reduce VOC and CO 2 emissions into the atmosphere and made the VOC-CO 2 project commercial. 55,56 Table 3 shows commercial projects to be implemented in 2020-2021 to reduce VOC and CO 2 in industry. According to the climate plan for the period up to 2030 of the European Commission for Energy, Climate Change and the Environment, the requirements for large-scale production are defined as the capture of at least 0.8 Mt/year of CO 2 for a coal-fired power plant and 0.4 Mt/year of VOC and CO 2 for other industrial facilities with intense emissions (including the production of electricity based on natural gas). 57 An inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases not regulated by the Montreal Protocol is compiled in the form of an annual or regular report prepared by international and state bodies, as well as by individual industrial organizations by industry. The first type can be very useful for researchers, which provides an opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of the current emission requirements. The second category, which focuses more on dangerous emissions from industrial areas, is useful for regulatory agencies that come up with and propose specific ways to improve how VOCs are spread. According to the IEA's 56 Special Report on CCUS, carbon capture and storage (CCUS) accounts for less than 0.5% of total investments in clean energy efficiency technology. 57 The United States and the EU are the leaders in integration into the development of CCUS facilities. In these countries in 2017, more than 30 facilities worth more than 27 billion dollars were commissioned, which is almost twice the investment in projects commissioned since 2010. One of the main reasons for the transition to CCUS technology is the proposal for a transition to a net zero conversion for existing power plants and industrial plants that could otherwise still emit 8 billion tons (Gt) of carbon monoxide (CO 2 ) in 2050. Also, CCUS can tackle emissions in sectors where other technological capabilities are limited, such as cement, iron, and steel, or the chemical industry, as well as produce synthetic fuels for long-distance transportation (aviation). It should be remembered that CCUS is the engine of the lowest cost, low-carbon hydrogen production, which is another profitable movement in the development of CCUS. CCUS can take CO 2 out of the air and get rid of it by combining it with bioenergy or direct air capture to make up for emissions that cannot be stopped or are hard to cut. 55 COVID-19 brought with it the transformation of the global economy into an energy-efficient market. Exogenous shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic made it difficult to measure progress on energy efficiency accurately using metrics, such as primary energy intensity. The primary energy intensity mainly reflects the pandemic's impacts on the economy rather than efforts to use energy more efficiently. The recent surge in activity in CO 2 capture and CCUS projects means there are several projects ready to be developed with the potential to double CCUS deployments by 2025.
From 2017 to 2021, the authors conducted a study on the assessment of atmospheric pollutants around the world based on data taken from the Energy Information Administration 56,57 : "Short-term energy outlook" (2021) for global production of crude oil and liquid fuels. Tables 4 and 5 and Figure 3 have more information about this research.
During this analysis (which used analytical approaches), it was found that several sources are responsible for a wide range of VOC emissions. However, T A B L E 4 Data on the production of oil and petroleum products, as well as the amounts of VOCs emitted into the atmosphere (explanation of Figure 3)

Region/country
Annual production (million barrels per day) Emission | 1523 no correlation has been established between specific VOCs and their likely sources. The time domains considered in these studies ranged from 1 to 6 months. On the basis of a preliminary assessment of where the emission sources are, the sample included both OPEC and non-OPEC that produce oil and petroleum products. 58 It should be noted that there is a significant level of uncertainty in the statistical information provided by the EAI on emissions. For this reason, approaches and methods for statistical errors were thought about and proposed, as well as the Monte-Carlo modeling method described in previous research. Researchers point out that higher VOC emissions at night are higher than usual due to meteorological factors, such as wind speed and direction over oil and gas sites. VOC emissions, while the ratio of emissions during the day and night was about less than 1. 33,34,[59][60][61] As it is stated before, the content of VOC, for which the studies were carried out, is higher in concentration in summer and less in spring and autumn, which indicates a high evaporation of VOC at high temperatures. But Huang et al. argue that for VOCs such as benzene and toluene, persistence and concentration in the atmosphere are significant at low temperatures and winds in the autumn season. 62 At the same time, the quantitative parameters of VOC are lower at night than during the day. Meteorological parameters and photochemical reactions typically determine the amounts of VOC and the characteristics of sources in the atmosphere. Zheng et al. argue that changes in the height of the atmospheric boundary layer height (BLH) have a greater effect than other factors. 17 Therefore, a lower BLH and fewer photochemical oxidations in the cold season led to higher concentrations of VOCs in the atmosphere. These changes in ambient temperature have been identified in the vicinity of refineries due to VOC emissions. This suggests that the ecological disorganization of oil and gas refineries is the main source of saturated hydrocarbon emissions.
For regions such as Central Africa, the Middle East, Russia, Latin America, China, and India, today account for about 60% of the world's crude oil production (OPEC). There is no generalized research examining emissions from crude oil refining. Therefore, regional oil industry data for these regions can help provide a global picture of VOC and CO 2 emissions. According to OPEC, these countries have the highest proven oil reserves.
For example, Figure 3 demonstrates an urgent need to accurately monitor the VOC emissions estimate for the regions that produce and distribute significant annual crude oil volumes. At the same time, it should be remembered that an accurate and direct analysis of the quantitative assessment of VOC emissions from various types of oil produced in the OPEC and non-OPEC regions plays a very important role here. This quantitative analysis should also be carried out to identify health problems among workers involved in oil and gas production, processing, transportation, and storage of oil and oil products. Next, the factor of the relationship between the level of disease and air pollution in nearby settlements from the places of oil and gas production and processing should not be neglected either.
To fulfill Russia's obligations to participate in the Paris Agreement, a Russian system for assessing anthropogenic emissions from sources and absorption by sinks of greenhouse gases not regulated by the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was created, and in 2017 by the order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated May 15, 2017, No. 930-r in the evaluation system, changes were made. The methodological basis for the development of the inventory, starting from 2015, is the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and T A B L E 5 Growth in oil production and VOC emissions into the atmosphere (explanation of Figure 3)

Region/country
Years of production growth (million barrels per day) methodological developments based on domestic experience in conducting national inventories and research materials. Ongoing work is done to check, control, and evaluate the quality of activity data and values of greenhouse gas emissions and removals.
A schematic description of the cadastre development process is shown in Figure 4. As can be seen from the figure, the development of the inventory includes the collection and primary processing of data on economic and other activities by the responsible federal executive   authorities; converting the received data into the formats required to perform calculations of emissions and removals; and completeness analysis.
The approved inventory is submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement bodies through the UNFCCC secretariat. 63 Other users can also access the cadaster data; they are published in Russia's Ministry of Natural Resources, Roshydromet, and Rosstat publications, and international data exchange takes place.
We believe that such gaps in information on sources of pollution may be related to the following: (1) the lack of implementation of restrictive environmental requirements and the formation of legislation in the field of VOC and CO 2 emissions in the oil and gas industry; (2) the high scale of development of the logistics of the oil industry in these regions (e.g., long pipelines and a number of oil fields); (3) oil refineries and loading and unloading stations; and finally; and (4) strong competition between major oil producers to reduce production costs.

| Effect of vapor emission from oil
To provide a comprehensive overview of the VOC from crude oil and petroleum products, an extensive review of studies has been conducted that directly or indirectly estimate the emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere at all stages of processing, transportation, and storage. In considering and reporting on the range of detected VOC oils, the method and types of VOC recovery facilities were considered. This was essential because some installations may have limitations in detecting a certain range of VOC components when capturing a mixture of air and gas. For example, Gentner et al., Gilman et al., and Warneke et al. describe a setup that was designed for railroad trestles and oil tankers. Also, data from researchers who estimated VOC and CO 2 emissions from refineries in crude oil production areas were examined. 26,64,65 Some researchers have used several analytical approaches in their work to identify a wider range of a two-phase mixture. For example, Mansfeld et al. investigated carbon dioxide disintegration in a microwave discharge at atmospheric pressure sustained by focused microwave radiation. 66 In other research conducted by Bongers et al., they described a VOC capture facility that was installed at ground level and consists of a metal siphon, a vacuum pump, an absorber, and plastic containers for gas sampling with flow restriction valves, which have proven to be the most common types of sampling equipment. They found that gas chromatography, mass spectrometry, and gas chromatograph GC-2010Plus with flame ionization detector are commonly used in laboratories for solving scientific problems. For example, separation and identification of substances resulting from targeted organic synthesis and verification of their purity; verification of the effectiveness and quality of new synthesized sorbents; and study of mixtures of unknown or partially known composition. 67 Since specific VOC detection units were used for each air-gas study according to the sampling location of the real fields in each country, it was not possible to compare the results to create clear and general reporting for each individual VOC. The physical and chemical composition of the crude oil of each individual region plays an important role in determining the sampling of the air-gas mixture to determine the unit of detected VOC. This complexity has been eliminated through extensive data collection and the proposal of new indices for VOC concentration and detectability beyond the limits. For this, time and regional meteorological parameters were considered, and different types of volatile compounds given off by crude oil were studied separately to get a full picture of each chemical.
The availability of a quantitative analysis of VOC emissions on an industrial scale from the extraction, processing, transportation, and storage of crude oil was identified in the works of the previously mentioned authors which confirmed that one of the main sources of VOCs is precisely crude oil, which is produced in Russia, the United States, Canada, AEO, Mexico, and Nigeria without proper VOC capture systems in production. However, it was impossible to establish any relationship between the type of crude oil and the region of production based on these data due to different analytical methods and existing uncertainties in comparing data of different types of crude oil and operating conditions, such as temperature, humidity, gas constant, and so forth. Another factor was the lack of sufficient information in these studies pertaining to the early stages of crude oil production in the fields before refining, where VOCs could be released into the atmosphere due to the lack of appropriate capture measures.
Parameters for calculating VOC detection: Reviewing the research on the effects of VOC emissions and the link between CO 2 production and VOC emissions, it was found that VOC emissions from crude oil around the world can be summed up by a few specific indicators: (1) the detectability of each VOC compound, as well as its relationship to CO 2 , and (2) the most likely levels of VOCs and CO 2 in the atmosphere.
In this regard, two parameters have been identified to calculate the detection capabilities and the likely concentration of VOC emitted during the handling, transportation, and storage of crude oil, which are reported in the literature. These definitions allow data to be analyzed and an overall result for each volatile chemical to be available on a global scale. The first parameter is the VOC Detection Rate, which describes the number of detections of each volatile compound in all the literature reviewed for the field. 10,14,15,26,28,33,34 This parameter demonstrates how plausible it is to identify specific VOC emitted throughout the entire production chain: production, processing, transportation, and storage of crude oil. The second parameter (total average VOC) shows the ratio of the amount of each VOC detected to the total amount found in each study. 30,43,45,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62]68 This parameter describes the likely concentration of each compound released from crude oil into the atmosphere and amplifies the impact of each compound on the ecosystem. According to the results of the analyzed literature, five source categories were distinguished: crude oil, commercial oil, liquefied natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, diesel, and industrial solvents. About 85% (by mass) of crude oil compounds are hydrocarbons, which primarily have five or more carbon atoms, C5, with an average composition of alkanes (30%), cycloalkanes (49%), aromatics (15%), and asphaltene (6%). Light hydrocarbons in crude oil (e.g., alkanes and aromatics ≤C15) can easily escape into the air due to the high vapor pressure and low boiling point and form the main group of atmospheric VOCs.
As evidenced by 190 member countries' "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" documents on their intended contributions to climate change mitigation, "Intended Nationally Determined Contribution" (INDC) for the period up to 2030. Table 6 shows a summary of the goals that the largest developed and developing countries, including Russia, listed in their INDCs.
According to the IEA (2018), global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, including VOCs from burning all types of fossil fuels for energy generation, are estimated, according to 2017 data, at 32.5 billion tons of CO 2 equivalent. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, which include VOC in crude oil and CO 2 , can be represented by the following formula:

EN NE
where the parameters are defined as follows: T A B L E 6 Examples of declared national targets to reduce emissions and increase CO 2 removal in the oil and gas industry up to 2030 Countries estimated contributions to climate change mitigation by 2030 Annual targets (%)

Industrialized countries
The By 2030, to reduce specific VOC and CO 2 emissions by $ 1 of GDP by 65%, reaching the peak in absolute value of GHG emissions no later than 2030. For this, it is envisaged to increase the installed capacity of solar power plants to 100  | 1527 TC-greenhouse gas emissions, including VOC, tons of CO 2 equivalent.
Р-population size, person; G-consumption of goods per capita, units/person. E-energy intensity of production and consumption of goods; Gigajoule/unit. C ЕN -specific emissions of greenhouse gases per unit of energy used in the production and consumption of goods, a ton of CO 2 equivalent/Gigajoule. C NE -nonenergy emissions of greenhouse gases per unit of consumed products, tons of CO 2 equivalent per unit.
Accordingly, the need to reduce emissions to lower energy consumption and production benefits consumption by reducing emissions from energy production as well as nonenergy emissions generated during the production and consumption of goods.

| Emissions control
Air emissions of pollutants from crude oil refining stages represent a significant volumetric loss of hydrocarbons. According to Choi et al., up to 2.5 million tons of organic compounds from crude oil refining enter the environment every year during the entire technological chain: extraction, processing, transportation, loading, unloading, and storage, which leads to financial losses of up to 700 million dollars per year. 69 Besieds, 2020 OPEC Report discusses the countries with the largest imports or exports of crude oil. It implies that it is possible to identify those countries for which financial losses due to VOC emissions into the environment will have significant economic, social, and man-made consequences. 3 On the basis of the conclusions of the analysis, VOC and CO 2 emissions are due to inappropriate environmental management because less control is exercised over those oil and gas companies that are exporters of raw materials than over importing countries that use monitoring technology to reduce emissions to maximize environmental performance benefits from imports of crude oil from exporting countries. According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping "Classification of Ships, Shipbuilding Materials, Machinery, Systems, and Equipment and Issuance of Class and Serviceability Documents," from 1978 to 2019, approximately 50% of major accidents during loading and transportation of crude oil, including spills in offshore areas, occurred during the sea transportation of oil. This report also excludes VOC emissions from long-distance transport on ships that are not equipped with shipborne VOC capture systems. The significance of a crude oil spill cannot be minimized by a VOC control and capture system, but it is possible that these effects of VOC emissions into the atmosphere should be controlled when loading and unloading crude oil in marine oil tankers of "Aframax." At the same time, as indicated in the research, the problem of volatilization of organic compounds during ballast water loading in marine oil tankers has a smaller impact on overall emissions than the process of flushing crude oil and oil products from the marine oil tankers, which is among the main sources of VOC emissions, which strongly depends on the operating conditions. Most marine oil tankers do not have VOC vapor recovery systems, and the reabsorption unit, recondensation unit, and collection piping system cannot effectively handle the escape of the vapors generated. Advanced hydrocarbon vapor recovery technologies for offshore oil tankers are in the market. But for the mandatory introduction of these installations, legislative decisions and measures taken by the exporting and importing countries of hydrocarbon raw materials are necessary. These controls are generally time-consuming and costly for the private and public sectors involved in the oil industry. Although their initial installation and maintenance costs are considered high, in the long run, these systems in their optimal design will be costeffective. In a document such as the International Safety Guidelines for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT), it refers to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 74) as amended. 70 The document spells out the requirements for inert gas systems that must supply an inert gas with oxygen and contain no more than 5% of the total volume at any required flow rate, as well as constantly maintain positive pressure in offshore marine oil tankers. At the same time, the oxygen content should not exceed 8% by volume, unless it is necessary for degassing in marine oil tankers (SOLAS Current Version, 1974). However, the VOC level in the offshore marine oil tankers' tank and the inert gas composition at the scrubber outlet should be monitored as shown in Table 7.
In some seaports where hydrocarbon vapor recovery systems are installed on marine oil tankers, the oxygen content in the inert gas should be 5% to meet environmental requirements. If it is more than 5%, the ship should be told about it when information is exchanged before it gets to the port.
Efficient inert gas scrubbing is essential, especially for reducing sulfur dioxide. High levels of sulfur dioxide increase the acidity of the inert gas, which is hazardous to personnel and can accelerate corrosion in the ship's hull and harm the marine ecosystem. In most cases, unloading operations for oil tankers are poorly managed due to the savings in time and money, for which reason there is an excessive pumping rate in almost all ports. When considering the issue of limiting emissions, it is necessary to look at indicators that depend on the properties of the crude oil as well as on the conditions of production, processing, and storage, because the volatility of VOC depends on the temperature of the oil and gas phases.
Most of the control methods, in addition to modification of equipment related to the capture of VOC emissions into the atmosphere, are based on abatement procedures, which can be broadly classified as capture and separation methods. In other studies, the authors talk about how membrane separation, cooling, cryogenic condensation, adsorption, and absorption are used in the oil and gas industry to collect, store, and reuse VOCs. 33,34,51,71,72 At the same time, methods of decomposition and conversion of VOC into simpler and safer compounds (O 2 and H 2 O) are possible using thermal, catalytic combustion, recuperation, photocatalytic oxidation, plasma technology, electron beam technology, biofiltration, and strong heating up to 2700°C. These methods are considered and described in Liang et al., 73 Everaert, 74 Son et al., 75 Nikiema et al., 76 and Salvador et al. 77 Also, Mansfeld et al. carried out studies on the decomposition of CO 2 . As a result, carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O 2 ), and argon (Ar) are formed. The authors put forward a theory that these gases can be broken down and mixed with other gases, such as hydrogen (H 2 ). The CO + H 2 mixture can then be used to make alcohol and plastics. 66 Today, the main VOC and CO 2 emissions of the fuel and energy complex come from refineries, storage tanks for crude oil and oil products, and sea transport. All these sources are recognized as the main sources of VOC pollution. In another study conducted by Khoramfar et al., which he considered a biological solution to the problem of VOC uptake, the so-called sequential biofiltration of VOCs on offshore marine oil tankers was also investigated. 10 Today, the main VOC and CO 2 emissions of the fuel and energy complex come from refineries, storage tanks for crude oil and oil products, and sea transport. All these sources are recognized as the main sources of VOC pollution. In another study conducted by Khoramfar et al., which he considered a biological solution to the problem of VOC uptake, the socalled sequential biofiltration of VOCs on offshore marine oil tankers was also investigated. 10 The methods of controlling and capturing VOC are time-consuming, as well as regulatory and investment-intensive for private companies and the public sector associated with the oil industry. All of the material and time costs associated with outfitting VOC capture plants are long-term implementation prospects for all businesses. [78][79][80][81] Businesses that use these technologies need to be aware of the long-term effects on the economy, but these effects will be good. 82

| CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this research was to provide insight into the impact of VOC and CO 2 emissions in the oil and gas industry during oil refining. The main problems in analyzing and quantifying the impact of VOC and CO 2 emissions during the extraction, processing, 83 transportation, 84 and storage of crude oil and petroleum products were the limitations in the use of analytical approaches when choosing a grade of crude oil and the presence of such factors as meteorological and climatic conditions that influence the amount of VOC emissions. The quantitative assessment of the effects of VOC on the ecosystem was split into two groups based on their detection rates and overall mean: 1. Highly concentrated VOCs that are rapidly detectable (toluene, benzene, hexane, heptane, cyclohexane, and pentane). 2. "Low-concentration VOC," the presence of which is not readily detected. These chemicals include ethylbenzene, m,p,o-xylene, and trimethylbenzene isomers. 3. Methylpentane, octane, methyl cyclopentane, and methyl cyclohexane with lower parameters.
In the early stages of oil production, attention should be paid to the importance of VOC control measures. Emissions control regulations are essential to the oil and gas industry around the world. 85,86 This is because most of the associated gas is burned in flares and is also emitted from the vacuum systems of oil processing plants, as well as during the operation of oil product pipelines 87 Necessary is develop the methodology and digital indicators for evaluating the activities of public extractive companies, with consideration to principles and sustainable development goals, allows increasing transparency and trust in its activities of the local population. 88 Limitation of emissions during the technological cycles of the plant operation can be achieved by draining the reservoir mixture into the vapor systems for regeneration or by controlled combustion in a flare of waste gases. Technically, emissions from vacuum systems can be controlled via a condensation system or pumped to steam boilers or heaters. And leak control can be reduced through regular tightness checks, repair programs, and preventative maintenance. Equipment (e.g., valves, gaskets, seals, pumps, etc.) that leaks significantly can be replaced with more sealed equipment. For example, valves and automatic control valves can be replaced with corresponding bellows-sealed devices. Pumps used for pumping gas, steam, and light liquids can be equipped with double mechanical seals with control ports to remove gases. Compressors can be fitted with seals with a liquid buffer system to prevent process fluid from escaping to the atmosphere and from flaring through the compressor seals. The process piping contains pressure relief valves that contain VOC. These valves can be connected to a gas collection system that can be burned in process furnaces or through combustion flares. The technological process associated with the storage of crude oil and petroleum products can be upgraded with technology that will reduce VOC emissions, add an internal floating roof-pantone or pantone-seal to the tanks, and connect the ventilation system to a hydrocarbon vapor control device through combustion in process furnaces. In terms of the process water remaining after oil separation, VOC emissions associated with the transport and treatment of wastewater can be reduced in several ways. Watertight adjustments can be installed as well as sealed casings at connections in drainage systems. Special covers can be installed on the drainpipes. Another way is to completely seal the drain system. Separators for separating oil and water consist of separator tanks, including separators for light fractions connected to drain hoses connected to mesh chambers, which are connected to oil product sedimentation tanks, and a device for capturing substandard oil products, which are equipped with fixed lids and closed ventilation systems for directing vapors for regeneration or removal of VOC vapors. Oil-water separators can also be equipped with floating roof panels with primary and secondary seals. Given these factors, reducing VOC emissions to the atmosphere from wastewater treatment plants can be achieved by draining crude oil from process equipment into a substandard oil collection system, thereby minimizing flow to the treatment plant. The inlet water temperature must be controlled to reduce air emissions. The oil refining sector needs to be addressed, as there is great potential in the downstream sector to reduce VOC and CO 2 emissions. [89][90][91] Emission control measures covering refueling refineries (through intermediate terminals) and discharging at petrol stations are defined as activities performed in stage I; measures to control emissions associated with refueling vehicles at petrol stations are defined as activities carried out in stage II. Table 8 summarizes the VOC emission control measures and their effectiveness in the refining industry.
The emission control measures implemented in Phase I are to balance the air/vapor content and its collection when dispensing fuel and regenerate it in recuperators. 92 In addition, the vapor-air mixture collected at the filling stations during the discharge of oil from the tankers can be sent to the vapor-air recovery units and regenerated. Phase II emission control measures include balancing the air/vapor content between the tank of a petrol tanker and an underground storage tank at petrol stations. Phases II and I measurements are the best way to cut down on vapor emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles. Reduced fuel volatility results in lower VOC emissions during storage and transportation. 93 At the same time, the total potential harmful emissions from the oil refining industry 31,94 can reach 80%, which can be achieved only with a low level of restrictions on harmful emissions into the atmosphere. 95 At the same time, it should be taken into account that A low enzymatic activity and specific Arctic climate point out a low self-restoration ability of the soil, demonstrated the need for its remediation. 96 On the basis of the analyzed literature, several gaps in current knowledge were identified that will be explored in future studies. It turned out that cyclohexane and pentane were highly concentrated compounds with a high degree of detection. However, most of the VOCs detected have relatively high boiling points, which underscores the importance of taking control measures in the early stages of oil production and in controlling the refining process. It is worth mentioning that restrictive policies, as well as regulations and requirements for the control of VOC emissions, are vital for businesses around the world associated with the oil and gas industry. It is also necessary to study the problems associated with the pollution of petroleum products and oil and the impact of VOC fumes on the surrounding ecosystem. The modern paradigm of sustainable development of the oil and gas industry should be based on an innovative component that forms a high-tech, rational, environmentally balanced system for the functioning of oil and gas production enterprises, transportation, and processing of hydrocarbon raw materials. 97 In those study fields, it is recommended to monitor the capture methods and propose the most efficient, cost-effective solutions. [98][99][100] AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS Vadim Fetisov initiated the study; synthesized data and performed research; draft of the paper, outline of tables and figures, references, and final editing. Adam M. Gonopolsky commented on the layout, contributed to some sections of the manuscript, revised the text. Hadi Davardoost and Ata Rezapour Ghanbari manuscript review, final editing. Amir H. Mohammadi manuscript review and synthesized data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. | 1531