Environmental impact and damage assessment of oil trunkline transportation by life cycle assessment method

As climate issues gradually attract public attention worldwide, the operation of crude oil pipelines has been attached with new emission‐reduction targets. Though previous studies concerning life cycle assessment (LCA) of oil and gas pipelines have estimated the carbon footprint to some extent, there is a lack of research on life cycle carbon emissions that take the process of crude oil pipelines transportation. the main objective of this study is to build a comprehensive LCA model of carbon footprint for crude oil pipeline systems. A gate‐to‐gate analysis is provided for the LCA model, which means that the entire pipeline's life cycle from the extraction to disposal is considered. The LCA approach used both midpoint and endpoint impact assessment methods to evaluate the environmental impacts of crude oil pipeline transportation in Iran. The study analyzed the major environmental impact categories, such as greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, water usage, and solid waste generation. The results showed that the crude oil pipelines transportation has significant environmental impacts in Iran. The three highest impacts on the midpoint scale are marine ecotoxicity by 61.54 kg 1,4‐DCB, terrestrial ecotoxicity by 52.26 kg 1,4‐DCB and fossil resource scarcity by 40.22 kg oil eq. The endpoint impacts of three stations were also compared. The Chamran, Abadan and Zanganeh stations have 95.44%, 94.22%, and 6% impacts on human health, respectively. Also, Abadan station has the largest amount of damage to ecosystems and resources with 96.65% and 80.02%, respectively. The findings of this study could be used by policymakers, oil companies, and other stakeholders to make informed decisions and implement strategies to reduce the environmental impact of oil transportation in Iran.


| INTRODUCTION
With the increasing impact of emissions on climate change, research on emission reduction has engrossed widespread attention. 1Usually, for a product, carbon emissions are valued just at the end use, while its serious emission procedures may be production, transportation or disposal. 2niversally, fossil fuels are the main source of energy, which have a wide range of usage.The consumption of fossil fuels is considered to be the main culprit affecting the global warming trend. 3Total oil demand around the world indicates a trend of steady growth, which has reached 99.57 million barrels per day (MMB/D) by 2022 and it is projected to increase to 101.89 MMB/D in 2023. 4owadays, one of the most important issues of governments is the transportation of fossil fuels.Global crude-oil transportation contributes a significant portion of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.The most conventional ways to oil transportation are road, oil tankers, rail, and pipelines.Crude oil tankers transport about 60% of the total crude oil in the world.But among various transportation modes, pipeline transportation has long been regarded as the most economical option. 5So far, oil pipelines have been established in many regions.At the end of 2021, there were 4785 pipelines globally with a total length of more than 2,069,000 km.And the total length of oil pipelines continues to grow around the world. 6ipelines and telecommunications are the main modes of transportation of fuel in Iran.The pipelines with a total length of 14 Tkm, 56 facilities, and nine pressure-relief stations are responsible for refueling.It is considered one of the largest liquid material transportation networks in the world.Therefore, a comprehensive analysis of this method is necessary to reduce emissions. 7Carbon emissions are produced at the extraction, processing, transportation, distribution, and utilization in various applications.This entire sequence is known as the well-to-wheel (WTW) fuel life cycle.The crude oil supply chain is indicated in Figure 1.The stages of crude oil supply chain are the exploration, extraction, field development, transportation, refining, separation, and distribution, respectively. 9ife cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to estimate the environmental impact of a process, product, or activity throughout its life cycle. 10So, the main purpose of this study is to build a comprehensive LCA model of carbon footprint for crude oil pipeline system.A gate-to-gate analysis is provided for the LCA model, which means that the entire pipeline's life cycle from extraction to disposal is considered.Also, the midpoint impacts such as global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, water consumption, land use and the endpoint impacts such as human health, ecosystems and resources were investigated.In general, the study analyzes the various environmental impacts of crude oil pipeline networks by building a comprehensive LCA model.

| LITERATURE REVIEW
So far, many researchers have accomplished carbon footprint analysis regarding the oil and gas industry.In two studies, Tiax and Ratner considered a WTW-LCA for gasoline and diesel.None of the studies considered the GHG emissions of oil drilling and land-use changes.Considering that the assumptions, system boundaries, methodologies, and data sources are different in both studies, the GHG emission results are also different.The results show refining emissions contributed largely to the WTW-GHG emissions. 11,12Huang et al. determined the LCA from construction to disposal to analyze carbon emissions of oil products pipeline systems.The amount of total emissions of different pipes provided through the model is within the range of 2.78-4.70tCO 2 e/t•km.Then, sensitivity analysis is carried out to know the driving factors of emissions.Results showed that pipe length, diameter and throughput turned out to be the dominating factors. 13he LCA of American and imported crude oil was conducted by the national energy technology laboratory (NETL). 14Various stages in the life cycle of crude oil were considered and the total life cycle GHG emissions were estimated.Also, Oil Production Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimator (OPGEE) has also been developed as a North American LCA tool. 15The OPGEE calculates the GHG emissions from the extraction, processing, and transportation of crude oil.however, it does not estimate the total life cycle GHG emissions.The models have been constructed with a specific assumptions, methods, data sources, and system boundaries.Mohsen salami et al. 16 collect an exact country-level global crude oil transportation network in 2018 and estimate that the direct and well-tohull GHG emissions related to crude transportation were 97 and 109 million metric tons (MMT), respectively.Then predict the global crude transportation emissions at the regional level in 2050 under a static and sustainabledevelopment scenario.A well to storage LCA model was carried out by Garg et al. 17 for diesel, petrol, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in India.The results show exploration and production of crude oil produce the most GHG emissions.In another study, Yan et al. 18 reported a WTW-GHG emissions for transportation fuels in China.This study covered the life cycle of crude oil from production to consumption in vehicle engines.The authors found that the same GHG emissions were produced by both gasoline and diesel.An LCA of gasoline and diesel was carried out by Furuholt et al. 19 The study considered the transportation of oil sands products from Alberta to various markets, including the United States, Asia, and Europe.The results indicated diesel had lower GHG emissions.Also, GHG emissions of oil sands product transportation depending on the distance traveled, the mode of transportation, and the energy source.
Guo et al. 20 carry out WTW-LCA analysis of oil sands.The pipeline transportation mode is integrated in this paper, but the discussed pipeline delivers only one product.Charpentier et al. 21compared the life cycle of oil derivatives with conventional crude oil.The findings showed that the oil derivatives had lower GHG emissions.Jhang et al. 22 represent a Well-to-Tank analysis on various fuel combinations based on conventional gasoline, while neither feedstock transportation nor fuel transportation in this research considers the mode of pipeline.Xu et al. propose a life cycle assessment method for natural gas pipeline to quantify the carbon emissions from construction to disposal.The stages are divided into four parts in this research: manufacturing, construction, operation, and recycling.Gas leakage from the pipeline system is also considered.The results show that the production process of pipelines contributes the most to carbon emissions. 23ergerson et al. 24 investigated the life cycle of bitumen by using the Green House gas emissions of current Oil Sands Technologies (GHOST) model. 25Abella et al. 26 examined the impact of refinery setup and crude oil quality on the GHG emissions by using PRELIM.However, there wasn't a full life cycle analysis of various crudes.Brandt 27 analyzed all of the main steps from oil sands transportation into final products in different studies.It was proved that the various results are due to differences in methodologies, data quality, and boundaries.The studies conducted by Nimana et al. 28,29 focused on measuring GHG emissions of recovery, upgrading processes and refining of Canada's oil sands products.However, these studies did not take into account the conventional crude oil GHG emissions.In a different study, 30 a model was created to determine the WTW-GHG emissions throughout the life cycle of oil sands products.However, GHG emissions produced by conventional crude oil are not considered in this model.In previous studies, 31,32 the main focus was on various oil sands products such as synthetic crude oil (SCO), dilbit, and bitumen, which have distinct properties and extraction methods compared to conventional crude oils.
The FUNNEL-GHG-CCO model, which was developed by the authors of this study, is considered to be a comprehensive tool for estimating the WTW life cycle GHG emissions from various conventional crudes.The calculation of GHG emissions from the various life cycle stages, including crude recovery, transportation to the refinery, refining, transportation and distribution of finished fuels, and combustion of transportation fuels in vehicle engines, is deemed important for making informed decisions about sustainability.The study examines five conventional crudes-Alaska North Slope, California's Kern County heavy oil, Mars crude (US), Maya crude of Mexico, and Bow River heavy oil of Canada-to assess their GHG emissions.The recovery stage of these crudes was previously quantified by Rahman et al. 33 which included GHG emissions from oil well drilling, associated land-use change, extraction, processing, venting, flaring, and fugitives.However, these recovery emissions were found to make up only a small percentage of the total WTW life cycle GHG emissions, emphasizing the importance of calculating the full life cycle GHG emissions for transportation fuels derived from conventional crudes, Also one of the most important study goals can be referring to planning towards the responsible consumption of energy resources, which the studies of Rehman Khan et al. 34 the introduction of 12 SDG programs in Pakistan, considering the similarity of natural resources of Iran and Pakistan, as well as the sustainable supply chain performance (SSCP) model in their study pointed to sustainable transport and less environmental impact.
Mirzavand et al. 32 conducted a study focused on Iran's natural gas pipeline.The authors analyzed the midpoint and endpoint emissions of five gas compressor and turbine stations.The study aimed to investigate the sensitivity of the global warming potential (GWP) of the gas pipeline network, providing valuable insights into the environmental impact of the network's operations.The results of this study contribute to the development of more sustainable practices for the natural gas industry in Iran.
From above, it can be concluded that there is currently a lack of research on life cycle carbon emissions that take the process of crude oil pipeline transportation.Though there are some similarities between crude oil pipelines and other pipelines, the detailed process and techniques are different.Systematically sorting out the life cycle of crude oil pipelines and summarizing emission sections are necessary for the long-term development of crude oil pipeline network.Understanding the drivers behind GHG emissions helps to determine the priorities for decisions on emission reduction throughout the life cycle.To fill the research vacancy on the life cycle of crude oil pipeline system, this paper establishes an LCA model to analyze carbon emissions.

| CASE STUDY
Iran is a major player in the global oil market with a vast network of oil pipelines stretching over 12,975 km and maximum diameter of 30 inches.oil trunkline arteries in Iran are national oil pipelines throughout the country.Iran accounts for 35% of the total active trunk pipeline lengths in the Middle East from more than 90 pipelines. 35Global Data's latest report reveals that Iran is likely to add a planned pipeline length of 5340 km and an announced pipeline length of 770 km by 2027.The specifications of the national oil lines include 12 zones throughout Iran.One of the most crucial of these zones is the Khozestan province with a length of 1300 km, which located in the southwestern part of Iran.The Khozestan pipeline plays a vital role in transporting crude oil from oil fields to refineries and terminals for export.Despite its significance, the oil pipeline in the Khozestan province faces numerous challenges such as aging infrastructure, environmental degradation, and political instability.The pipelines in the region are old and prone to corrosion, leaks, and malfunctions, causing frequent shutdowns and maintenance.Oil production and export operations also have a major impact on the environment, leading to soil and water pollution, deforestation, and other ecological problems. 36olitical instability and creates security challenges such as the risk of sabotage, theft, and other forms of attack.The vast oil reserves in the region can be developed to increase oil production and export, which will benefit the country's economy and presents several opportunities for growth and improvement.In addition, better environmental management practices can be implemented to reduce the impact of oil pipeline transportation on the environment.So, this study highlights the importance of ensuring the sustainability and success of the oil pipeline in the Khozestan region for the benefit of the country's economy and environment.

| METHODOLOGY
This study aims to establish an LCA model to evaluate the environmental impacts of crude oil pipeline transportation in Iran.In this research, SimaPro software based on ISO 14040 and 14044 standards has been used to implement the evaluation.The critical components of LCA are goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), and interpretation.The LCA steps are explained in the following subsections separately. 37,38

| Goal and scope
The objective of this research was to examine the life cycle of crude oil transportation from certain pumping houses and to estimate the emission of pollutants into water, air and soil in the crude oil trunkline stage quantitatively and to evaluate the ecological and human effects of each stage on the environment on a local, regional and global scale.

| System boundaries
In this study, part of the gate-to-gate type has been selected as the system boundary to evaluate the life cycle.The process of production, urban distribution, and consumption of crude oil are not considered and only the process of crude oil transfer from the pumping house has been selected as the boundary of the system.Figure 2 is the same as the system boundary for the three pumping houses.

| Functional unit
In this research, to quantify and also compare the consumed oil, a functional unit of 1 cubic meter of oil has been considered.

| Inventory analysis
Information was collected on the part of the third national line that is responsible for transporting crude oil from the oil refinery to the entire Khozestan province.This information for each station includes the amount of oil entering the stations, the amount of pollutants released and the amount of electricity consumed by the station during 2022.Table 1 presents this data.Also, Table 2 shows the average amount of pollutants emitted from the pump houses.The components of pollutant emissions are CO 2 , CH 4 , PO 4 , and NO 3 , which are measured separately.

| Impact assessment
The evaluation of crude oil life cycle effects was done with the aim of understanding and evaluating the potential environmental effects of crude oil pipeline transportation.At this stage, the information obtained in the LCI stage was entered into SimaPro software and evaluated.One of the most important methods used in evaluating is ReCiPe, which will conclude in two methods of classifying midpoint and endpoint effects.

| Interpretation
Interpretation is the final stage of the life cycle evaluation process that is done alongside the previous three stages.During this step, the collected data is analyzed.The interpretation of the life cycle assessment encompasses a review of all the stages of the life cycle assessment, which in this research is interpreted in three parts: • Provide results of environmental impacts of three different stations.• Comparison of results of environmental impacts of oil pipelines transportation.• Sensitivity analysis of results.

| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Oil transportation LCA for part of the third national line was carried out using SimaPro software.This research was divided into three sections of oil pump house stations, each of which were calculated for LCA and compared in this section.

| Analysis of midpoint environmental impacts of the study
Global warming index results are examined at three stations and the values in Figure 3A are compared.Abadan station emits the highest amount of CO 2 per day among all stations.Emissions from burning gas in turbines and generating power for electricity consumption in pump houses are the main reasons for this production.Greenhouse gas emissions are a major cause of global warming and climate change.
The results of the stratospheric ozone depletion index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 3B are compared.In spite of proximity of study results, Chamran station had the most pumping activity among all stations due to its longer service time.Undoubtedly, the frequent usage of the pump leads to the highest production of pollutants caused by both the pump's operation and the generation of electricity for consumption.
The results of the ionization potential index of material at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 3C are compared.In accordance with the current findings of this study, Chamran station has the highest rate of Co-60 production compared to the other stations.One of the main reasons for its production is the existence of heavy oil at the station, as well as the operation of turbines for electricity generation.
The results of ozone molecular formation index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 3D are compared.Ozone formation typically occurs in the Earth's stratosphere and is crucial for blocking harmful ultraviolet radiation.However, ground-level ozone, a component of smog, can lead to respiratory issues and other health problems in humans.It is considered a pollutant when present in higher concentrations near the surface.Groundlevel ozone is primarily formed through chemical reactions involving pollutants emitted by vehicles, industrial facilities, and other sources.These pollutants, including nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), react in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone.Human activities that release these pollutants contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, leading to air quality issues and associated health problems.Ozone formation will cause a lot of pollution on the earth's surface.Because along with other environmental impacts, it drastically damages vital tissues of the human.Among the stations, Chamran station has the highest ozone production due to the longest service time.The susceptibility to damage from ozone emissions is particularly high in the province of Khozestan, which is plagued by environmental hazards such as dust and industrial pollution.
The results of the particulate matter formation index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 3F, are compared.Most suspended particulate are NO X , CO, and so on, which are principally caused by pollutants generated by turbines.As expected, Chamran station makes the greatest contribution to airborne particle generation due to the highest turbine operation and also the highest gas flow rate.
As can be seen from Figure 3, for global warming index, Abadan station has the most significant negative environmental effects by producing 3.33 kg of CO 2 equivalent.Meanwhile, Chamran station has the most significant adverse effects on various environmental factors, including stratospheric ozone depletion with 0.23 kg CFC11 equivalent, ionizing radiation with 0.21 kg Co-60 equivalent, ozone formation 2.337 kg of NO X , and fine particulate matter formation with 1.142 kg PM2.5 equivalent.In contrast, Zangane station has the least impact on global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, ionizing radiation, ozone formation and fine particulate matter formation with 0.06 kg CO 2 equivalent, 0.008 kg CFC11 equivalent, 0.005 kg Co-60 equivalent, 0.027 NO X equivalent and 0.02 kg PM2.5 equivalent, respectively.
The results of the acidification potential index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 4A are compared.This is due to emissions such as SO 2 , H 3 PO 4 , H 2 SO 4 , NO X , HNO 3 , HCl, and NH 3 . 39In various ecosystems, lifeless environments were observed to be a result of acidification.Among the studied stations, Chamran station has the greatest impact in this regard.
The results of the suppression potential index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 4B,C are compared.The decline of oxygen levels in lakes and reservoirs due to sea displacement is one of the negative consequences of lake suppression.The reason is the accumulation of nutrients which leads to an increased production plankton and algae growth.The growth of algae causes it to spread and move to the deeper layers of the atmosphere, consuming oxygen to the deeper layers as well.The primary reason for this phenomenon is the emission of chemicals such as nitrates and phosphates, which are present in the exhaust of turbines and oil entering the station.Chamran station has the greatest impact on these issues among the three stations.
The results of ground and open water pollution index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 4D,E are compared.Poisoning potential is employed to evaluate the effect of toxic substances discharged from resource utilization on both surface and open waters.Consideration is given to all contaminants that have the ability to induce toxicity.Power production for consumption as well as pollutants produced are deemed significant contributors to water pollution in the cycle of this system.Chamran station was found to have the highest rate of pollution in both surface and open waters.Also, the result of Chamran is really close to the Abadan result.The results of the indoor toxicity index at three stations were examined and the values in Figure 4F were compared.The potential for soil contamination is assessed using an indicator that assesses the impact of toxins released from the use of inputs on soil organisms.Toxins such as plastics and heavy metals accumulate in the tissues of plants and animals, and can also harm their survival and reproduction, eventually leading to their extinction.
The loss of these species can be a long-term threat to life on earth, including human life.Petroleum hydrocarbons are a common source of toxic substances, including solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.Among the studied stations, Chamran Station was found to have the highest toxicity levels.
The results of the human toxicity index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 5A,B are compared.The human toxicity index is an indicator for assessing the impact of released toxins from use of inputs on human health.This index takes into account all contaminants that have the potential to cause harm or human death.Air and water pollution are significant issues in this regard, which have severe negative impacts on human health.The Chamran and Abadan stations have the highest amount of this index due to the heavy oil entering the pump house stations.
The results of the natural land use index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 5C are compared.The alteration of this indicator has a significant impact on natural resources such as water, soil, nutrients, plants, and animals.Issues like urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, soil salinization, and desertification can arise from high indices.It can be inferred that the Chamran pump house station consumes more gas and electricity due to it having been in operation for a longer period of time than the other stations.
The results of the mineral deficiency index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 5D are compared.The station that made the greatest contribution in this regard was Chamran, with the highest consumption, nearly twice as much as Abadan and five times as much as Zangane.
The results of the fossil resource scarcity index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 5E are compared.Among the stations, Abadan has the highest consumption of fossil fuels (gas and electricity).Also, Zangane ranks second and Chamran having the lowest consumption due to the use of new technology.Reduction of fossil resources is a crucial topic in LCA.There are international guidelines for classifying and managing cases of fossil fuel depletion, which include rules and conventions.| 1863 Research has indicated that the primary category of fossil resource depletion and reduction is the use of primary fossil fuels (oil crude and natural gas).
The results of the water consumption index at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 5F are compared.Water consumption follows energy consumption.So, as Abadan station has higher energy consumption than the other stations, it also has higher water consumption.On the other hand, Zangane has the lowest water consumption due to its lower energy usage.
As shown in Figure 5 that the human carcinogenic toxicity index, Chamran station has 47.66 kg 1,4-DCB, whereas Abadan station has 21.94 kg 1,4-DCB and Zangane has 8.71 kg 1,4-DCB.The impact on the land use index of these three stations ranges from 0.005 to 0.007 m2a crop eq.The greatest impact on mineral resource scarcity is made by Chamran station with 0.00014 kg Cu eq, while the other stations have much lower values.With regard to the impact on fossil resource scarcity, the highest impact is made by Abadan station with 40 kg Cu eq, followed by Zangane with 29.9 kg Cu eq.Additionally, Abadan station has the most effects on water consumption with a value of 0.18 m 3 .

| Analysis of endpoint environmental impact results of stations
The results of the impact of environmental damage on human health at 3 stations are examined and the values in Figure 6A are compared.Abadan and Chamran stations have higher levels of impact in the indices for fine particulate matter formation, ionizing radiation, human toxicity, stratospheric ozone depletion, ozone formation, global warming, and water consumption, which are all considered direct effects on human health problems such as respiratory diseases, heart disease, and some types of cancer.As a result, Chamran station with 1.91 DALY has the greatest impact on the damage to human health index, followed by Abadan with 1.85 DALY.
The results of environmental damage on ecosystems at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 6B  direct impact on damage to various ecosystems and can cause harm to open water bodies, surface waters and terrestrial climates.Therefore, it was observed that Abadan and Chamran stations have the greatest impact on the damage to ecosystem index, causing an impact of around 0.14 species year.
The results of environmental damage on resources at three stations are examined and the values in Figure 6C are compared.Unlike previous findings where Chamran station had the highest impact, in this endpoint it was found to have the lowest impact.The key factors affecting the results are the mineral resource scarcity and fossil resource scarcity indices, as they have a direct impact on the scarcity of resources, leading to an increase in the cost of minerals and fossil fuels.As a result, Abadan pump house station was found to have the greatest impact on the damage to the resources index, with a total impact of USD 39379.

| Presentation of Monte Carlo method in global warming index
In this part of study, the sensitivity of some impacts such as global warming, characterization stratospheric ozone depletion, mineral resource scarcity water consumption in both Abadan and Zangane stations are analyzed together and the results are calculated and presented by Monte Carlo method.In Figure 7A the difference between the amount of CO 2 emitted from Zangane station and Abadan station in different scenarios of SimaPro software is examined and the probability of each amount is calculated and analyzed.
Probably 0.85% (rarely) of the difference in CO 2 emissions is −26,570 kg of Zangane station compared to Abadan station.In Figure 7B the difference between the amount of CO 2 emitted from Zangane station and Abadan station in different scenarios of SimaPro software is investigated and the probability of each amount is calculated In Figure 7C the difference between the amount of mineral resource scarcity impacts emitted from Zangane station and Abadan station in different scenarios of SimaPro software is investigated and the probability of each amount is calculated and analyzed.Probably 40% (most likely) is the difference in mineral resource scarcity impacts emissions.
In Figure 7D the difference between the amount of water consumption emitted from Zangane station and Abadan station in different scenarios of SimaPro software is investigated and the probability of each amount is calculated and analyzed.Probably about 50% (most likely) the difference in water consumption emission is 11.4 kg.
In Figure 8, all midpoint effects are shown for the study of the oil transmission line in Khuzestan region and for the pump house of Abadan, Zangane, and Chamran stations.In most cases, both stations of Abadan and Chamran have more effects.In only one parameter, the environmental effects of Zangane station are greater than those of Chamran station, and that is the scarcity of fossil resources, which means Chamran and Zangane stations have 19% and 30% effects on fossil resource scarcity, respectively.
Figure 9 shows the comparison of the end point effects index at three stations.As shown in the diagram, in the human health index, Chamran, Abadan, and Zangane stations have 95.44%, 94.22%, and 6% the effects on human health, respectively.In the ecosystems index, Abadan station has 96.65%,Chamran station has 98.33% and Zangane station has about 4% of the impact of damage to ecosystems.In the resources index, Abadan, Zangane and Chamran stations include 80.02%, 75.33%, and 42.16% of the impact of damage to resources, respectively.

| CONCLUSION
This study focuses on the environmental impact of three pressure boosting facilities along a section of the national oil pipeline in the Khozestan province.The three stations being analyzed are Abadan, Chamran, and Zangane, with the study only considering the process of transferring oil.The data for the study was collected from 2022 reports and is based on an average of 1 day operation during that year.This data includes information on the amount of compressed oil coming in and out of the station, the station's electricity consumption, oil leakage, fuel consumption at the pump houses, and pollutant emissions from the operational systems.The collected data was analyzed using Simapro software, and the results were evaluated using the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) and ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) methods.The results are presented in four sections: the environmental impact of each station, a comparison of the impacts of the three stations, sensitivity analysis, and overall results.The three highest impacts in midpoint scale are Marine ecotoxicity by 61.54 kg 1,4-DCB for Chamran station, Terrestrial ecotoxicity by 52.26 kg 1,4-DCB for Chamran station and Fossil resource scarcity by 40.22 kg oil eq for Abadan.The results showed that the Abadan station had the greatest environmental impact among the three, with longer operation time leading to higher electricity and fuel consumption, as well as more pollutant emissions.It is recommended that further research be conducted to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions from oil transfer operations, which have a significant impact on global warming.

| Further study suggestion
The environmental effects of transporting any type of oil, both upstream and downstream industries, are very important, and today, according to the available technologies in the transportation industry, we can point out cases for further studies in this field:
are compared.As per the results, Abadan and Chamran stations have the higher levels of impact compared to the Zangane station in regard to indices such as global warming, freshwater ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, ozone formation, terrestrial acidification, land use, marine ecotoxicity, and water consumption.These indicators have a F I G U R E 6 (A) Human health.(B) Ecosystems.(C) Resources.

F
I G U R E 7 (A) Characterization global warming.(B) Characterization stratospheric ozone depletion.(C) Characterization of mineral resource scarcity.(D) Characterization of water consumption.and analyzed.Probably 14% (most likely) is the difference in CO 2 emissions of 0.137 kg by Zangane station compared to Abadan station.

F
I G U R E 8 Comparison of midpoint impacts.F I G U R E 9 Comparison of the end point of impacts.
The amount of oil input and electricity of consumption of pump houses.Emission output of the pump houses per day.
T A B L E 1 1. Comparative studies: Consider comparing the LCA results with alternative transportation methods (e.g., trucking, rail) or with different types of oil.2. Technological advances: Explore how advancements in pipeline technology or materials could potentially reduce environmental impacts.3. Policy and regulation: Investigate the influence of different regulatory frameworks on the environmental performance of oil transportation.4. Regional considerations: Assess how location-specific factors, such as geography, climate, or infrastructure, impact the LCA outcomes.