Enhancing Protein and Vitamin A Intake Through the Addition of Bambara Groundnut and Ripe Plantain to Maize Porridge

Protein deficiency, especially among children, is prevalent in most developing countries. One sustainable strategy proposed to tackle this deficiency is by incorporating locally available but underutilised staple foods that are rich in proteins such as Bambara groundnut into pre‐existing and popular diets such as porridge prepared from roasted maize flour. This strategy can also be used to tackle vitamin A deficiency which is common among children and pregnant women through the incorporation of ripe plantain—a vitamin A rich staple. In this study, the quality of composite flours prepared from roasted maize, Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain and the acceptability of porridge made thereof was investigated. Increasing the levels of Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain increased the protein and β‐carotene levels, respectively, without affecting the physicochemical quality. Increasing the content of ripe plantain increased the iron content; however, higher levels of the Bambara groundnut increased the tannin content. Flash profiling showed that flour composition influenced the attributes of the porridges; however, hedonic sensory scores showed no differences in acceptability with respect to the aroma, appearance, texture and taste.


| Introduction
Health risks associated with inadequate nutrient intake, particularly vitamin A (Aguayo and Baker 2005) and protein deficiencies (Henley, Taylor, and Obukosia 2010;Schönfeldt and Hall 2012) in developing and/or low-income countries, is still on the increase.For a whilst now, vitamin A deficiency has posed a significant public health challenge, leading to a rise in preventable blindness especially among children (Stevens et al. 2015).In Ghana, around 20.8% of children under 5 years old and 1.5% of women of reproductive age are estimated to have vitamin A deficiency (Wegmüller et al. 2020).Among the to preventing vitamin A deficiency is the use of vitamin A-rich food-based diets or their precursors.When such locally available raw food materials are incorporated into existing diets, they serve not only as effective mitigating tools but also as a cost-effective alternative compared to the use of expensive food supplements (Hotz et al. 2015;Sarfo et al. 2020).
Porridge, a dish prepared by boiling roasted maize flour in hot water, is commonly consumed in Ghana and many other African countries and, also often, serves as a popular weaning food for infants.However, maize is reported to be poor in several nutrients including vitamin A, proteins (Rouf Shah, Prasad, and Kumar 2016) and some essential amino acids such as lysine (Chassy 2008).Indeed, having recognised the nutrient limitation of maize and other cereals, Galani, Orfila, and Gong (2022) recommended that grain products must be supplemented with other staples to make complimentary foods with improved nutrient density.
Roasted maize porridge is popular in several African countries because it is consumed by people of all age groups and, thus, can serve as a useful vehicle for targeting and addressing vitamin A deficiency among the populace and children, especially.Ripe plantain is a readily available staple with high content of beta-carotene (a vitamin A precursor), easily digestible and rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Kwofie et al. 2020).Indeed, Dzomeku et al. (2008) reported that mashed ripe plantain can serve as a weaning food for babies after 6 months of exclusive breastfeeding.According to Blomme et al. (2020), a 250 g daily intake of ripe plantain can provide up to 71.8% daily recommended intake of vitamin A for infants, whereas a 500 g daily intake can provide up to 81% of the daily recommended intake of vitamin A for women of reproductive age.However, ripe plantain has not been explored as grain-supplementation alternative, partly because of the low protein content (Adepoju, Sunday, and Folaranmi 2012), which is insufficient in addressing the high rate of protein energy malnutrition among infants in most developing countries (Henley, Taylor, and Obukosia 2010;Schönfeldt and Hall 2012).In this regard, the addition of plant-based protein-rich source such as legumes can help fill the protein gap.
Among the leguminous crops, Bambara groundnut is considered nutritious, rich in protein, underutilised and affordable.With a protein content of 18%-24%, Bambara groundnut shows a comparable or higher content than several other legumes (Mayes et al. 2019;Mi 2018).The groundnut is abundant in essential amino acids and can be utilised as an additional composite for improving the nutritional value of food products (Yao et al. 2015).
To help promote community nutrition, there is an increasing interest in the utilisation of locally available foods (Lucan 2019;Ziso, Chun, and Puglisi 2022).In this regard, using Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain to enhance the intake of vitamin A and protein needs to be investigated.This is especially so as their incorporation can affect the quality of roasted maize flour and the acceptability of porridges produced thereof.Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the quality of composite flours prepared from roasted maize, Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain and the acceptability of porridge prepared from these flours.

| Raw Materials and Flour Preparation
Freshly harvested plantain and maize were obtained from Jukwa and Abura markets in the Cape Coast metropolis, respectively.Bambara groundnut was purchased from Takyiman in the Bono East Region of Ghana.All three food items were authenticated by the Herbarium of the School of Biological Sciences of the University of Cape Coast.
Maize and Bambara groundnut were sorted to exclude deteriorated, broken or infected seeds, stones or other foreign materials by hand picking.The plantain was kept in an enclosed chamber at ambient temperature (28°C) for 3 days until the onset of ripening to reduce the bitter tones, improve vitamin A and enhance palatability whilst maintaining the firmness.Subsequently, ripe plantains were shredded, dried in an oven (60°C, 4 days) and milled using a cutting blender into a powder of about 0.3-mm mesh size.Maize was roasted in a hot oven for 30 min at 250°C and milled using a ball mill (Gratis Foundation, Mc Lean, VA, USA) after cooling to ambient temperature.The Bambara groundnut was boiled in hot water (100°C) for 2 h and de-hulled by rubbing against each other by hand, dried and milled (Figure 1).

| Preparation of Composite Flours
Composite flours were produced by mixing roasted maize flour (M 100 ), ripe plantain flour (P 100 ) and Bambara groundnut flour (B 100 ) according to the ratios shown in Table 1.The ratios were generated based on a simple lattice design using Design Expert with an upper and lower limit of 50% and 25%, respectively, for each type of flour.Then, the nutritional and antinutritional compounds, physicochemical and pasting properties of the flours were analysed.Additionally, some composite flours were used to prepare porridge to determine the consumer acceptability through sensory analysis.

| Analyses of Nutrient and Mineral Composition
Nutrient compounds (protein, fat, fibre, ash and carbohydrate) and moisture content of the flours were determined based on the AOAC (2010) methods.Briefly, moisture and ash content were determined by drying (105°C for 6 h) and combusting, respectively.A preweighed mass of the flour was analysed for protein and fat contents based on the Kjeldahl free-nitrogen procedure and Soxhlet extraction, respectively, whilst crude fibre was analysed using the sequential acid and alkaline digestion method.
For minerals analyses, ash from the combusted flour (20 g) was acidified with 3-M HCl, transferred into a volumetric flask and made up to 50 mL using distilled water.Iron (Fe) content was determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Schimadzu AAS model No. 6401F) (Siong, Choo, and Shahid 1989), calcium and magnesium were determined following the EDTA titration method (Tucker and Kurtz 1961) and potassium was analysed using a flame photometer (Flame photometer, Model No. PFP7, Jenway, UK) (Jakmunee and Junsomboon 2011).

| Analysis of β-Carotene and Phenolic Content
β-Carotene was analysed by weighing 1.0 g of flour, adding 5 mL of chilled acetone and incubating at 4°C for 15 min with occasional shaking.After centrifugation at 1370 × g for 10 min, the supernatant was collected, and the residue was re-extracted.The pooled supernatant was filtered, the absorbance measured at 449 nm (Bibby Scientific Ltd, UK, Jenway 6400) and β-carotene used as the standard (Biswas, Sahoo, and Chatli 2011).
For analysing the phenolic content, methanolic extracts were prepared by mixing 0.5 g flour with 10-mL absolute methanol.After incubating for 0.5 h at room temperature, centrifugation was carried out at 3000 × g for 20 min.To 100 μL of the supernatant, 1.0-mL Folin-Ciocalteau reagent and 750-μL 6% sodium bicarbonate were added, incubated for 90 min, and the absorbance measured at 725 nm.Gallic acid was used as the standard (Dadzie et al. 2021).

| Analysis of Antinutritional Compounds
For the analysis of phytate, 3-M HCl (100 mL) was added to 2.0 g of flour and shaken for 3 h.After filtration, 107-mL distilled water was added to 50 mL of the filtrate, and then 10 mL of 0.3% ammonium thiocyanate was added and titrated against Iron (III) chloride (Garcia-Villanova, Garcia-Villanova, and Ruiz De Lope 1982).
Total oxalate was determined by titration of acid-digested samples against potassium per manganite as described by Karamad et al. (2019).For tannin content, 10-mL 70% acetone was added to 0.2-g flour and the mixture incubated in a water bath (60°C, 15 min), allowed to cool to room temperature for 30 min and filtered.Then 0.5-mL filtrate was reacted with an equal volume of Folin's reagent and distilled water, followed by addition of 2.5-mL 20% Na 2 CO 3 .Absorbance of the developed colour was measured at 725 nm.Tannic acid served as the standard (Tinkiliç and Uyanik 2001).pH and °Brix of the supernatant were measured using a B10P Benchtop pH meter and an MA871 Milwaukee Refractometer, respectively.For this, 1.0-g flour was dispersed in 10-mL distilled water and centrifuged at 3000 × g for 20 min and the supernatant used for analyses.Colour was determined using a colour reader (CHN Spec, China, CS-10

| Viscosity and Flour Pasting Properties
A Brabender viscoamylograph (Type 801203 W.G) equipped with 700 cmg cartridge was used to measure the viscosity of the flour.After dispersing 40-g flour in 500-mL water, an aliquot was delivered into the sample tube and heated from 30°C to 95°C at a rate of 1.5°C/min, maintained for 30 min and cooled to 50°C.The viscosity was continuously recorded at a rotational velocity of 75 rpm.
Water absorption capacity was determined by dispersing 1.0 g flour into 10 mL distilled water in a pre-weighed test tube and vortexing for 30 s.After equilibrating at room temperature for 30 min and centrifuging at 2527 × g for 1 min, the supernatant was carefully decanted and weighed.For oil binding capacity, water was substituted with oil following a similar procedure as previously described (Adebowale, Adeniyi Afolabi, and Lawal 2002).
Bulk density was determined by transferring 100-g flour into a 250-mL graduated measuring cylinder and consolidating by hand-tapping to obtain a consistent volume.The mass of flour and volume was used to compute the bulk density as described by Adebowale, Adeniyi Afolabi, and Lawal (2002).
Swelling power was determined by dispersing 1.0-g flour into 40-mL distilled water in a preweighed, 50-mL graduated centrifuge tube.The dispersion was vortexed for 30 s and heated at 85°C with shaking in a water bath for 30 min.After the contents were allowed to cool to room temperature, the tubes were centrifuged at 3000 × g for 15 min, and the supernatant decanted and saved.The ratio of the mass of sedimented gel to the dry weight of flour was used to estimate the swelling power.To determine flour solubility, 5-mL supernatant was transferred into a preweighed crucible, dried at 105°C for 4 h and the dry weight measured.The difference in weight was used to estimate flour solubility (Adebowale, Adeniyi Afolabi, and Lawal 2002).All analyses were carried out in triplicates.

| Sensory Evaluation of Porridge Prepared From Flours
Three composite flours (M 25 B 50 P 25 , M 25 B 25 P 50 and M 33 B 33 P 33 ) as well as M 100 were used to prepare porridge, which were evaluated for sensory properties and consumer acceptability.
For preparing the porridge, 70-g composite flour, 0.5-g table salt and 3.5-g sugar were homogenised in a blender (Binatone, Model No.BLG401-28G, China) using 800-mL potable water.Thereafter, the mixture was boiled in a stainless-steel pan on an electric cooking plate (Binatone, Model No. ECP-210, China) with continuous stirring for 12 min, allowed to cool to 50°C in a water bath to obtain the cooked porridge, which was used for the sensory analyses.
Quality attributes of cooked porridge were assessed using flash profiling according to a previously described procedure (Kizzie-Hayford et al. 2021) with minor modifications: A 15-member panel (6 males, 9 females, average age: 24.5 years) was randomly recruited for the study.Porridge samples were given 3-digit random codes and served in 50-mL transparent cups.
Consumer acceptability of porridge was determined by using a 9-point hedonic scale.For this, a 75-member panel (30 males, 45 females, average age: 22.2 years) was recruited for the study and presented products as described for flash profiling.The panel was allowed to rate attributes of the porridge based on the appearance, taste, texture, aroma and overall acceptance from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely).Single sensory experiments were done.

| Price of Composite Flours
To ascertain the selling price and affordability of the composite flours, a cost analysis was carried out by taking into consideration the cost of raw materials (maize, ripe plantain and Bambara groundnut), the different processing steps needed to produce the flour from the raw materials and the cost of labour.

| Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was carried out using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS (IBM, SPSS Statistics 20).Post hoc analyses were carried out using the Tukey test.For comparative purposes roasted maize flour (M 100 ) was used as the reference (control).Generalised Procrustes and principal component analyses of data from the flash profiling was done using the Senstools.Net software (OP&P Product Research BV, Utrecht, Netherlands).

| Nutritional and Antinutritional Contents of Flours and Their Composites
The moisture content (g/100 g) of the flour from roasted maize (M 100 ) was the lowest when compared to that of Bambara groundnut (B 100 ) and ripe plantain (P 100 ), which showed the highest content (Table 2).The composite flours revealed variable moisture contents, with the lowest and highest moisture (g/100 g) recorded for M 41 B 29 P 29 and M 29 B 29 P 41 , respectively.
The proximate composition of the flours and their composites showed that on dry matter basis, M 100 had the highest fat content, P 100 had the highest ash and carbohydrate whilst B 100 had the highest fibre and protein content.Among the composite flours, M 25 B 50 P 25 showed the highest protein content whilst M 29 B 41 P 29 gave the highest fibre.The highest content of fat and ash was recorded for M 25 B 25 P 50 whilst M 33 B 33 P 33 had the highest carbohydrate content (Table 2).
Table 3 shows that P 100 had the highest content of iron, calcium and potassium.The mineral content of the composite flours varied depending on the formulation, with M 29 B 29 P 41 having the highest iron content whilst M 50 B 25 P 25 and M 25 B 25 P 50 showed the highest magnesium, and calcium and potassium contents, respectively.
In Table 4, P 100 showed the highest content of β-carotene whilst B 100 gave the highest phenolic, phytate, oxalate and tannin contents.Among the composite flours, M 25 B 25 P 50 gave the highest content of β-carotene and phenolic content, whilst M 29 B 41 P 29 and M 33 B 33 P 33 had the highest phytate and tannin contents respectively.

| Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Flours
The physicochemical properties of flours shown in Table 5 revealed that B 100 had the highest pH and °Brix.On the contrary, P 100 gave the lowest pH whilst M 100 showed the lowest °Brix.
The pH of the composite flours was not significantly different from that of M 100 , with M 41 B 29 P 29 and M 25 B 50 P 25 presenting the highest and lowest pH.On the hand, the °Brix of the composite flours was all higher than that of M 100 .

| Sensory Acceptability of Porridge Prepared From the Flour
The sensory evaluation of the porridge prepared from M 100 and the selected flours in Figure 2 depict a range of scores   .69 to 7.41 for appearance, 6.00 to 6.42 for taste, 6.59 to 7.19 for texture, 6.26 to 6.45 for aroma and 6.22 to 6.63 for overall acceptability.No significant differences between M 100 and the composite flours was observed in all the sensory attributes.
Figure 3 on the generalised Procrustes analyses of group average plot for descriptors of the different types of porridge revealed that Dimension 1 and Dimension 2 accounted for a total variance of 83.10%.The total number of generated descriptors was 82 with emerging descriptors for product attributes as follows: M 33 B 33 P 33 was described as sour, beany, astringent, corn and brown.That of M 25 B 50 P 25 were sweet, astringent, plantain, sour, beany and smooth whilst roasted corn, corn, beany, plantain, brown and smooth were used for M 50 S 25 P 25 .M 100 had emerging descriptors including corn, grainy, sweet, brown and roasted corn.

| Selling Price of Composite Flours
In Table 8, the estimated cost of the flours produced from maize, Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain was based on the cost associated with each unit operation.Based on estimates for water and electricity usage and labour cost during the period of the study 2022), the cost of milling and dehulling was estimated at 1.0 ȼ/kg, whilst the cost of roasting, boiling and drying was estimated at 1.20, 1.10 and 1.50 ȼ/kg, respectively.Based on the estimates, the price of M 100 was estimated at 10.7 ȼ/kg, whilst that of the composite flours ranged from 14.67 to 17.83 ȼ/kg.

| Discussion
The proximate composition of the roasted maize (Dauda, Kayode, and Salami 2020), Bambara groundnut (Enweren and  Hung 2009; Igbabul, Adole, and Sule 2013) and ripe plantain flours (Ketiku 1973) was within the range of values reported for the products.Qamar, Aslam, and Javed (2016) reported the proximate composition of several maize germplasms to be between 0.81 and 1.35 g/100 g for ash, 0.79 and 2.78 g/100 g for crude fibre and 11.05 and 12.79 g/100 g for crude protein, which were all within the range observed in this study.The high moisture tent of the composite flours compared to the roasted maize flour can be attributed to the Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain flours, which showed high moisture levels.
The high ash content of ripe plantain contributed to the observed increase of crude ash in the composite flours, accounting for the increase in the mineral content.An increase in ash was correlated with increase in potassium, showing a doubling of the potassium levels in almost all the composite flours.Additionally, an increase in iron was observed, showing that the composite flours can be used to tackle issues of iron deficiency anaemia, which is considered to be prevalent in several developing countries including Ghana (Shenton, Jones, and Wilson 2020).
Considering that the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for iron is about 0.27 mg/day for infants up to 6 months and between 7 and 18 mg/day (DeLoughery 2017) for the general population, the composite flours could be considered adequate for satisfying the RDA of infants and the general populace.Additionally, the consumption of any of the composite flours can help to increase the intake of calcium and zinc.
The fat, fibre and carbohydrate content of the composite flours were comparable to that of roasted maize flour, indicating that similar energy levels (calorific intake), compared to roasted maize flour, can be achieved when the composite flours are consumed.The increased protein content of the composite flours can be attributed to the high levels observed in the Bambara groundnut flour.On one hand, although Bambara groundnut is considered as being cheap (Mubaiwa et al. 2018), a rich source of protein (at least 20 g/100 g) (Mayes et al. 2019;Mi 2018) and as being high in the content of several essential amino acids including leucine and lysine (Yao et al. 2015), the nut is also considered underutilised (Tan et al. 2020), probably because of the limited technologies for processing into consumer-acceptable foods.On the other hand, maize is low in protein and lysine (Chassy 2008), but the most widely consumed cereal in sub-Sahara Africa (Raheem et al. 2021).Thus, incorporating Bambara groundnut in breakfast meals such as maize porridge is highly recommendable (Soumare, Diedhiou, and Kane 2021), as this can help augment the utilisation of the nuts for food, improve protein energy nutrition, help consumers meet the dietary essential amino acid requirements and improve food and nutrition security.
The observed increase in β-carotene with increasing proportion of ripe plantain flour can also serve an important purpose in helping to alleviate vitamin A deficiency.Considering the possible health effect of vitamin A deficiency such as night blindness  and xerophthalmia, using readily available stables such as ripe plantain to supplement foods to combat this deficiency can be considered novel.Additionally, in Ghana and most other countries, the usage of ripe plantain as food is limited to mainly hotoil frying and roasting.Thus, incorporating ripe plantain into porridge can provide avenues to expand its usage whilst enhancing the economic importance.
The incorporation of Bambara groundnut caused an average increase in tannins by about 22%, without changing the phytate and oxalate levels.Although these antinutrients have been observed to play nonbeneficial roles in human nutrition, such as impairing the bioavailability of minerals and digestibility of protein (Oyeyinka and Afolayan 2019), acceptable levels in food were reported to lower blood glucose and lipids levels, as well as helping to prevent calcium crystallisation in renal organs (Oyeyinka and Afolayan 2019).A safe limit of at most 1.5-g tannins per day was recommended by Rao and Prabhavathi (1982), which implies that the observed increase in tannin content of the composite flours is unlikely to show any adverse effects on consumers.More so, the heat applied during porridge cooking could further decrease the tannins, as Ojo, Ade-Omowaye, and Ngoddy (2018) reported more than 50% reduction in antinutrients of cooked legumes.
No major changes in physicochemical quality were observed in the composite flours showing that roasted maize flour can serve as a vital meal for supplementation purposes to meet specific nutritional needs.The observed similarities in pasting and functional properties of the composite and roasted maize flours imply that no major changes in cooking conditions such as the water to flour ratio and cooking time may be needed when preparing porridge using the composite flours.Also, the properties of the cooked porridge such as volume, weight, viscosity and texture of the composite flour might not differ significantly from that of the regularly consumed roasted maize flour.
Consumer rating of the porridge did not reveal any significant differences, showing that the composite flours present comparable consumer preferences.However, results from the flash profiling on the attributes showed different clusters of the product coordinates, meaning that consumers were able to distinguish among the different types of porridge.The acceptability of the composite porridge could be partly influenced by the removal of the Bambara groundnut hull (dehulling), which is reported to improve the flour particle size because of enhanced grinding, whilst decreasing the beany flavour, which is known to negatively impact the consumer acceptability of legume-fortified foods (Simons and Hall 2018).Inability to recruit children as part of the sensory panel constitutes a limitation in this study as the participation could have enhanced the direct application of the results.Notwithstanding, considering that roasted maize porridge is consumed by people of all ages, the outcome of the study could still be extrapolated to benefit the general populace.
The price of the composite flours, which was about 50% more than that of roasted maize flour, can be attributed to the inclusion of Bambara groundnut and the additional processing steps for making the flour.The cost contributed by the Bambara groundnut could be lower if the groundnut finds increased usage for food with enhanced production and a corresponding consumer demand.
With respect to helping to reduce protein under-nutrition and vitamin A deficiency in vulnerable and poor communities through the introduction of the composite flours, it is possible that the composite flours can be produced at a lower cost than what is reported in this study if indigenous processing steps such as sun/solar drying and traditional milling methods are employed.Thus, by incorporating Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain into roasted maize flour, composite fours with different characteristics can be generated, which can be significant for influencing protein and vitamin A nutrition in Ghana and other developing countries.

| Conclusions
Incorporating Bambara groundnut and ripe plantain into roasted maize to create composite flours enhanced the nutritional value, boosted the protein, β-carotene and iron content.This suggests that adopting the composite flours for preparing maize porridge could have the potential to address concerns related to protein-energy malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency and anaemia.Additionally, no major changes in physicochemical quality, functional and pasting properties were observed, indicating that the composite flours can yield similar flour properties, cooking conditions and porridge outcomes.Moreover, sensory analysis of the newly developed porridge revealed no discernible differences in acceptability regarding aroma, appearance, texture and taste, suggesting that the composite flours could be valuable alternatives for enhancing nutrition in children and the general population.Further research on the sustainability of adopting the newly developed composite flours and the impact on the nutritional outcomes of consumers could be relevant.
with an 8-mm light path aperture, based on the CIELAB.Colour primaries, L*a*b* values, were determined and used to estimate the total colour change (Ampofo-Asiama et al. 2020) and browning index (Kizzie-Hayford et al. 2021).

FIGURE 2 |
FIGURE 2 | Sensory acceptability scores of porridges prepared from roasted maize flour (M 100 ) and the selected composite flours.

FIGURE 3 |
FIGURE 3 | GPA group average plot for emerging descriptors of porridge prepared using composite flour from maize (M), Bambara groundnut (B) and plantain (P).Numeric subscripts refer to compositions (%) of flour ingredients.

TABLE 1 |
Flour samples and the ratios used in the preparation of composite flours.

Table 6
shows that M 100 had the lowest water absorption, solubility index and swelling power, whilst P 100 showed the highest solubility index but the lowest oil absorption and bulk density.B 100 gave the highest water and oil absorption capacities, bulk density and swelling power.Among the composite flours, M 29 B 41 P 29 showed the highest water absorption and swelling power, M 29 B 29 P 41 revealed the highest bulk density whilst M 25 B 25 P 50 gave the highest solubility index.
The pasting properties of the flours in Table7depict that M 100 had the lowest breakdown viscosity but the highest peak time, whilst P 100 had the highest breakdown viscosity, the lowest trough viscosity but the highest final viscosity of 2452 BU.B 100 had the highest pasting temperature of 87.62°C, peak viscosity and
trough viscosity.With respect to the composite flours, M 25 B 25 P 50 showed the highest peak viscosity, trough viscosity, final viscosity and the shortest peak time of 9.13 min whilst M 41 B 29 P 29 and M 25 B 50 P 25 gave the highest pasting temperature of 84.85°C and breakdown viscosity of 165 BU, respectively.

TABLE 8 |
Cost of raw materials, processing methods used in producing flours and estimated cost of prepared flours.