“Totemic species” can be an effective lens for engaging students with Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity conservation

We present the outcomes of a program designed to engage primary school students with both Indigenous knowledge and biodiversity conservation, through the lens of “Totemic” species. The program provided resources for genuine engagement with Traditional Owners, and for the coordinating teachers to dedicate time to curriculum development and delivery. The material was embedded within a cross‐school core curriculum topic (biology), presenting both Indigenous and Western knowledge in parallel. Students' understanding of ecology and conservation increased significantly post‐program, as did their cultural awareness and appreciation of traditional knowledge. Care for the totemic species was also shown to increase and enthusiasm for this approach to teaching science was expressed by students. The co‐benefits of this program include creating habitat for threatened species, improvements in the health and wellbeing of students through engagement with biodiversity and the potential for ecosystem services such as cooling of the school grounds. Effective ways of embedding cultural awareness and Indigenous knowledge into the Australian curriculum are urgently needed and it is our hope that this program provides evidence of effective ways of embedding these knowledges moving forward.


| INTRODUCTION
The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (2008) identified and established a need for reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students through understanding of the value of Indigenous culture and knowledge systems, and developing relationships between Indigenous communities and school groups (Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians [Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, MCEETYA, 2008]). Beyond this, there is a focus on "environmental sustainability" and Indigenous content being accessible where relevant for students. Despite the focus on environmental sustainability, Indigenous knowledge systems are not suggested to be included in science curriculums. It is a well-accepted fact that Indigenous knowledge systems are overflowing with knowledge of sustainable practices that are as relevant today as ever before.
In response to the Melbourne Declaration, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders History and Cultures was introduced as a Cross-Curriculum Priority by the Australian Curriculum in 2010 (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2020). This acknowledges that Indigenous knowledge belongs in all subject areas including science. While Australian teachers see this as a great opportunity, there is concern that it is tokenistic in nature, and there is not enough education or information for teachers to incorporate this knowledge in a culturally sensitive manner (Baynes, 2015).
As a consequence of the inclusion of this Cross-Curriculum Priority being introduced without additional training and accessible information for teachers, many are left in a position where they feel unprepared and under-educated to deliver Indigenous knowledge within their classrooms (Harrison & Greenfield, 2011). Subsequently there is a knowledge gap among non-Indigenous teachers, and a need for a paradigm shift when it comes to teaching Indigenous science and knowledge systems to non-Indigenous students (Harrison & Greenfield, 2011). Current research on the topic of teaching Indigenous knowledges focuses on teaching Indigenous students and how incorporating traditional knowledge systems can improve educational outcomes for these students. This lack of Indigenous knowledge in education can be seen as a "Silent Apartheid" (Rose, 2007). The Apartheid policy in South Africa allowed Indigenous people to be segregated and discriminated against from 1948 to 1994. The idea of a Silent Apartheid in Australia looks at a continuous cultural genocide, where due to a bias in education systems to put Western knowledges as the most important, non-Indigenous Australians remain ignorant to traditional knowledge (Rose, 2007). This can be seen as a residual and ongoing "colonisation of the mind" (Rose, 2007). This paper goes against this ongoing colonization, putting Indigenous knowledges at the forefront of the learning, highlighting their equal importance when looking at native plants and ecological education in Australia.
Indigenous knowledge, research, and perspectives can be well placed to inform and complement Western science, but finding this common ground is one of the struggles of cross-cultural research (Wilson, 2008). The rationale for the Totemic Species in Schools program is to teach Indigenous and Western knowledge together in a holistic way, placing an emphasis on Indigenous science throughout this learning sequence. Beyond this, the program was designed to allow for traditional culture to be incorporated to build a better understanding of biodiversity conservation and sustainability, and to establish more green spaces and a habitat for threatened species within the school grounds. Increasing the biodiversity of school grounds has numerous co-benefits including health and wellbeing of students (Dadvand et al., 2015;Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2011) and the potential for ecosystem services such as cooling of the school grounds (Zhang et al., 2017).
This program involved working with a representative of Wurundjeri Land Council to identify a "Totemic" species for the school as the basis for curriculum development. "Totem" is an imported term from Northern America, but relates to a similar concept for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples who may "recognise, relate to, and regulate plants and animals through the Dreaming as 'totemic' species, which are assigned obligations or rules by specific individuals or families" (Robinson & Raven, 2019, p. 34). "Totemic" species are particular plants or animals that are gifted by a parent or elder to either an individual or group. The species holds cultural significance to those gifted with the Totem, with the connection being mutually beneficial; the totem is a protector and the person shows their "respect for the totem in various ways by not killing it if it be an animal, or not cutting or gathering it if it be a plant" (Frazer, 2009, p. 4).
The Matted Flax-Lily (Dianella amoena) was selected as the main "Totemic" species for the program on advice from Wurundjeri elders. The Matted Flax-Lily is endemic to Victoria, occurring in grassland and grassy woodland habitats, much of which has been cleared (Oberon, 2010). Remaining populations are small and fragmented and continue to be negatively impacted or cleared for urban development. The species is listed as Endangered under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and there are thought to be only about 1400 plants remaining (Oberon, 2010).
The species has cultural significance for Wurundjeri, including using berries when ripe as a food source and used as a dye, the seeds chewed, boiling leaves to make tea, and using leaves for weaving baskets and platting into cord and to make whistles to deter snakes.
We present an evaluation of a continuous learning experience that sought to teach the conservation of biodiversity through an Indigenous lens. We evaluate the Totemic Species in Schools program, focusing on whether it altered the students' and teachers' understanding of Indigenous culture, connection to nature, and their sense of responsibility to nature and the totemic species. We developed a questionnaire to investigate the effectiveness of embedding Indigenous knowledge and connection to nature within a school science program focused on incorporating Indigenous and Western knowledge together to build a better understanding, respect, and care for Indigenous culture and biodiversity of natural habitats. This novel approach has the capacity to inform the development of environmental science curriculums and sequences.

| Description of the program
The lesson sequence took place over 10 weeks. Seven of the weeks contained one 55 min lesson on the topic, two of the weeks featured an incursion or excursion and the final week was the planting of a native garden. In total students spent $12 h across the 10 weeks working on this topic during class time.
This lesson sequence was developed by the lead teachers (NW and BM) to provide students across all primary year levels (Foundation to Year 6) the opportunity to engage with the material (See Data S1 for full curriculum outline). The program was developed by exploring the science curriculum links allocated by the school that were required to be taught during the term which this program of work took place. NW provided ideas for ways of incorporate Indigenous knowledges and perspectives into the program, and BM and NW planned out a sequence which allowed students to grow their own plants and develop an appreciation for plant biology and Indigenous science. The activities included references to topics from the previous term as identified by BM. This sequence was then approved, resources found and created, and sent out for the teachers in the school to prepare for and teach.
As there was a lack of teacher confidence regarding the teaching of Indigenous knowledge within the classroom in a respectful and culturally appropriate manner, the lesson sequence and plans were scaffolded for educators. NW provided background information and links for educators to find information on regarding the topics where relevant, and taught some of these classes with teachers observing where the classroom teacher still felt they did not had the capacity to teach the content.
The curriculum material was highly diverse, ranging from ecology and ecosystems, to baking and craft activities using culturally significant plants. As part of the program, students engaged in a range of activities including smoking ceremonies hosted by Traditional Owners, incursions hosted by Indigenous experts, and growing and planting their Totemic species in a native garden at the school (Table 1, Figure 1). Pre-and post-unit investigations were an opportunity to conduct the program evaluations and to reflect on learning outcomes, as well as reflective evaluations facilitated by the lead teachers of the program.

| Survey evaluation
This study aimed to evaluate how engagement with the Totemic Species in Schools program influences connection to nature, and attitudes toward biodiversity and threatened species, as well as understanding of and appreciation of Indigenous culture and knowledge in participating students, teachers and parents/ guardians.
All students within the school (n = 283) participated actively in the program, but only students in years 3-6 participated in the pre-and post-program survey evaluation (See Table S1). Teachers were utilized to share this content knowledge with the students and see if their confidence in teaching would increase consequently. Parents/guardians were the only audience which did not actively engage with the program. They were invited to the opening of the garden and some of the parents assisted with the excursion and incursion days, however T A B L E 1 Curriculum sequence for the implementation of the program at Carlton North Primary School.

Week
Topic Activity Week 1 Introduction Pre-unit investigation Week 2 RMIT research introduction RMIT pre-survey Week 3 Seeds Scientific drawing seed planting Week 4 Indigenous farming and care for the land

Research and poster making
Week 5 Ecosystems Interactive food web role-play Week 6 Excursion to Melbourne Museum

Native species worksheets
Week 7 Native Australian Flora Collage Collage drawing Week 8 Indigenous incursion Native ingredients baking and artifacts Week 9 Planting Planting garden with culturally significant species Week 10 Conclusion Opening of garden, RMIT post-survey this was not mandatory and undertaken on a voluntary basis We aimed to evaluate the effect of the program on these three audiences (students, teachers and parents/ guardians). For students and teachers, who experienced the program directly through a change in the regular curriculum and the experience of teaching and participating in the classes, we evaluated how the program influenced knowledge and attitudes about native species and Indigenous culture. For parents and guardians, we were seeking to understand whether their knowledge and attitudes were indirectly affected by student experiences in the program.
To evaluate these aims, two online questionnaires were developed; one for students, and one for teachers and parents. The questionnaires consisted of questions grouped into three main categories; connection to nature, understanding and awareness of Indigenous culture and the totemic species, and non-identifying demographic questions that might influence the participants' relationship with nature or Indigenous culture (See Table 2). Each post-program survey included an optional openended question asking participants for their feedback and thoughts on the Totemic Species in Schools program.
In the student questionnaire, connection to nature questions were based on a scale developed for children by Cheng and Monroe (2012). This scale includes 16 items relating to four dimensions; enjoyment of nature, empathy for creatures, sense of oneness with nature and sense of responsibility for nature, and has been shown to be a useful measure of connection to nature in children up to the age of 13 years (Bragg et al., 2013).
In the adult questionnaire, Nisbet and Zelenski's (2013) six-item scale of nature-relatedness was used instead of Cheng and Monroe's "enjoyment of nature" questions. All other connection to nature questions were identical between the student and teacher and parent questionnaires.
Through preliminary research prior to the start of this program (including a literature search, scan of websites and conversations with relevant organizations) we were not able to find or become aware of any existing scale for measuring a connection to Australian Indigenous culture that was appropriate for children. In the absence of such a scale, we developed our own series of questions centered on dimensions that are relevant to the evaluation of the program, including engagement with people of other cultures (two questions, adapted from the Motivational CQ subscale of the Cultural Intelligence Scale [CQS], see Van Dyne et al., 2015), knowledge of the totemic species (four questions), care for the totemic species (three questions), knowledge of Australian Aboriginal culture (three questions), and a sense of a duty of care for nature (three questions). Some questions were reverse scored to counteract the potential for acquiescence bias in which participants may tend to agree to all statements (e.g. Schuman & Presser, 1996). Copies of the student and parent/teacher questionnaires are included in Data S1.
Student participants completed the questionnaire prior to the commencement of the Totemic Species in Schools Program in July 2019 (n = 122). The questionnaire was completed in-class with teaching staff on-hand to assist with student comprehension of the survey.
Student participants, as well as their parents/guardians and teachers, were asked to complete the questionnaire again at the conclusion of the program (students n = 63; parents/ guardians n = 30; teachers n = 5). Students and teachers took the survey during class time, while parents were sent a link to the survey to complete in their own time. Questionnaires were completed individually by each participant.

| Analysis of questionnaire data
The student questionnaire data were evaluated by examining the mean response (+/À 95% confidence intervals) to different questions from the pre and post-surveys. In this way, changes and trends in the responses are quantified for each factor of interest (knowledge of the totemic species; care for the totemic species, knowledge of Indigenous culture; care/concern for nature). Due to time constraints, parent/guardian and teacher surveys were only completed once post-program, and are therefore not evaluated in this way. Responses to items in the connection to nature scale were combined into a single value for analysis. No other measures were combined for analysis and were instead evaluated individually. We assessed internal consistency reliability of the connection to nature index for children by checking correlations between individual items within the four dimensions that make up the scale; enjoyment of nature, empathy for creatures, sense of oneness with nature and sense of responsibility for nature (See Data S1).

| Reflective evaluation
This program and evaluation relied in part on postteaching reflection or thinking on action (Munby, 1989). Reflecting in action was reserved mostly to the lead teachers (NM and BM), as they had the most familiarity with the content and the cultural elements of the program. Using this post-reflective practice, and the development of this paper allows for a "perpetual learning spiral" for this program (Larrivee, 2006).

| RESULTS
Three categories of results are presented here: the quantitative survey evaluation, qualitative survey results, and reflective observational data from the two main educators on the program, who are also co-authors of this article (NW and BM).

| Quantitative survey evaluation
The sample for the pre-program survey (n = 122) was approximately representative of the larger school population (see Data S1). The sample for the post-program survey (n = 63) had a slight gender bias toward female students (45.1% female in pre-survey and 52.4% female in post-survey), and notable age bias toward older students (i.e., responses only from students aged 10 years or more). See Table S1 for a full summary of sample demographic information. The sample sizes for the pre-and post-program surveys were substantially different, however, we believe the post-program survey was sufficiently representative of the initial survey population for the overall evaluation results to be meaningful.
For students, all measures related to Knowledge of Totemic Species showed a substantial increase in postprogram as compared with before the program, including an increase in understanding of how the Matted Flax-Lily is related to its habitat and other plants and animals in the surrounding ecosystem ( Figure 2). Despite already high mean responses for Care for Totemic Species measures pre-program, two of these three measures also showed detectable differences in post-program student responses, indicating the program further increased student care for the Matted Flax-Lily (Figure 3).
Before the program 43.44% of students (total sample n = 122) could correctly name the Traditional Owners where they live. After the program, 80.65% of students (total sample n = 62) completing the survey could correctly name the Traditional Owners; an increase of 85.54% (Figure 3a). Students also indicated more strongly post-program that their school learns a lot about Aboriginal culture, and there appears to be a possible mild increase post-program in how important students thought the totemic species was for Indigenous culture (Figure 3c,d). There was no detectable change in student responses regarding how much they enjoy learning about Indigenous culture, however, the high mean response  (Table 2).
Exploratory analyses suggest some differences in participant responses across gender. For example, female students scored slightly higher on average in the Connection to Nature Index (M = 4.53, 95% CI [4.43, 4.62], n = 53) in comparison to male students (M = 4.30, 95% CI [4.18, 4.42], n = 61) pre-program but not post-program. This trend appeared to be primarily driven by female student responses to the Enjoyment of Nature subindex ( Figure S1b). Similarly, female students showed greater responses than male students for measures 2 and 3 of the Responsibility and Agency variable, with no clear differences between pre-and post-program ( Figure S1d). Interestingly, female students showed a greater response post-program than male students to Measures 3 and 4 of the Knowledge of Totemic Species variable ( Figure S1c), while male students showed greater responses postprogram for Measure 3 of the Care for Totemic Species variable ( Figure S1e). It is notable that these trends suggest the overall significant responses in these measures may have been primarily driven by students from these particular genders. However, given the varying sample sizes pre-and post-program, and the bias towards older students in post-program surveys, these trends require further study. See Data S1 for full summary statistics of student results (Table S2).
Parent/guardians completing the post-program survey (n = 29) demonstrated lower Nature Connectedness scores compared with the students, while teachers (n = 5) demonstrated higher scores, similar to student responses (See Table S3).

| Qualitative survey results
Each post-program survey included an optional openended question asking participants for their feedback and thoughts on the Totemic Species in Schools program. In these responses, the vast majority of students indicated that they enjoyed the program, with specific reference to the hands-on nature of the program and the importance of learning about local Indigenous culture (See Data S1). The high frequency of students mentioning Indigenous culture in their comments indicates particularly high student engagement with this element of the program. Overall, the vast majority of comments indicated enjoyment of the program, with many commenting on the importance of the learning or expressing a wish to continue the program. Responses also highlighted the local direct impact of planting the totemic species, indicating a greater awareness of the endangered species as well as a sense of stewardship and responsibility toward it.
While a smaller sample size, responses from parents/ guardians and teachers were similarly overwhelmingly positive about the program, with specific reference to their support for the learning, their child's high engagement, as well as their own interest in learning more about Indigenous culture and the totemic species (See Data S1).

| Teacher reflections and observational data
In the pre-program work developing the curriculum and idea behind the program there was excitement and apprehension from the lead teachers. The idea of embedding the two knowledge bases (Indigenous and Western), without (unintentionally) causing any Indigenous knowledge to be included in a tokenistic manner was intimidating. Throughout the course of the lesson sequence students were seen to retain knowledge of the various plant species, including their names, traditional uses, and identification of said plants. Students were engaged and took strong ownership of the plants they grew and planted in their garden at school, with some students even naming their individual plants. The garden planted by the students became a source of pride, as the students were informed that this garden has one of the largest populations of Matted Flax-Lily. Multiple students said they wanted to plant more around their community to create "Bee bridges" between plant populations. This was enforced in the post-survey questionnaires with students writing that it was "awesome to think that our school has one of the world's biggest population of matted flax lillies!" and that they are "planning to plant some in their backyard" and parents stating their child has started to asks regularly if they could "plant native plants because of how important they are." (Tables S4 and S5). Students went beyond the project team's expectations and began to take care of the garden themselves, protecting their species during break times at school, and showing the garden to their families and teaching them about the different species within it.
The experience of teaching Indigenous knowledge and Western knowledge in parallel was a humbling one. There was a lot of self-education required for this sequence, and self-doubt was often present. Working with Wurundjeri Land Council and First Nations Australians eased this, with their knowledge base acting as a guide for the sequence and content. Students reacted well to this holistic approach, with many students showing their biases and previously held stereotypes. These were able to be disproven, such as students not knowing that there are traditional farming practices, or dismantling the nomadic myth.
Teachers and students seemed impacted beyond the program. Students told the lead teachers that they wanted to bring the blue banded bee back to their habitats and planned on planting some of the species they found in their own gardens, which was reflected in the qualitative survey results: "I never knew about the Matted Flax-Lily and that it was going extinct and now I'm planning to plant some in my backyard!". Teachers commented that they were more confident and felt like the lessons were rich and impactful for their students.

| DISCUSSION
As an approach to building cultural awareness, the program evaluation revealed an improvement in both knowledge and respect. While there was the observation of a ceiling affect in this data, this leads us to believe this program may be able to provide worth in other schools, with more research needed. Several ceiling effects (Everitt, 2002) around interest in learning about other cultures and care for nature were demonstrated. This is cause for optimism and a reason to have confidence that students are enthusiastic about the topics of conservation and Indigenous culture.
There was a strong focus during the developmental stages to ensure that Indigenous and Western knowledge systems were presented so that neither were portrayed as more important than the other. Emphasizing that Indigenous science is the results of tens of thousands of years of experimentation assisted in conveying this. This approach allowed for a holistic teaching and learning experience which legitimized traditional cultural knowledge.
Teacher confidence in implementing this learning sequence increased throughout the course of the term. While enthusiastic, there was initial apprehension regarding personal confidence levels in teaching this program. The main educators on the program (NW and BM) both reflected on this phenomenon, as conversations with teachers throughout the sequence went from hesitant to enthusiastic. BM reflected that their personal confidence increased, and that they felt more confident in teaching and introducing Indigenous knowledges in a culturally appropriate manner.
Knowledge of, connection to, and care for threatened species was also effectively imparted through the program. The depth of understanding was demonstrated through appreciation of the importance of the Matted Flax-Lily in supporting other species in the grassland ecosystem and an understanding of the importance of ecosystem management, including through cultural practices such as cool burning. Place-based conservation learning can engender a sense of care for species that can extend to other environments (Eilam & Garrard, 2017). The concept of totemic species brings a deep appreciation of connection to nature that goes well beyond understanding the threat status and ecology of the species. This connection was evidenced through the significant increase in agreement within the questionnaire with the statement that "The Matted Flax Lily has the same right to exist as people do." A growth in appreciation of the importance of the species for Indigenous culture was also reflected in the post-program evaluation ( Figure 3) (See Data S1 for student responses to the program).
The qualitative information provided by students in the post-program evaluation revealed that the approach used to present the material to students was engaging and fun. Further, there is some evidence that combining Indigenous and Western science was an effective approach to teach this material, with one student commenting that, "I really enjoyed science this term …. I feel much closer to our indigenous culture than I ever have." The main educators in the program (NW and BM) both reflected that the success of the approach in teaching ecology and species conservation could be extended to other disciplines, including engineering, art and mathematics.
Broadly this research has the potential to positively impact teaching of Indigenous content within Australia. There is currently a disconnect between teacher confidence and government promises in this context. Since the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge into the Australian Curriculum there has been a lack of available research and resources as to how teachers can appropriately incorporate this into their curriculum, and how to teach non-Indigenous students' traditional history and knowledge. This program provides clear direction as to how Indigenous science can be embedded in a holistic way into existing curriculum descriptors, while simultaneously incorporating and increasing student's engagement with nature and science, and students' personal feelings of responsibility to the environment.
While the focus of this program was delivering cultural awareness and knowledge of biodiversity conservation, there were numerous impressive co-benefits. The school constructed a grassland ecosystem habitat including numerous planted individuals of the critically endangered Matted Flax-Lily. School grounds are an underestimated location for the creation of habitat  and if harnessed could provide much needed locations for biodiversity conservation, particularly in cities where opportunities for habitat creation can be limited (Garrard et al., 2018). Benefits to the health and well-being of children are also likely to stem from greater interaction with biodiversity. Studies have connected biodiversity in schoolyards with improved cognitive function (Dadvand et al., 2015), reduced behavioral issues (Faber Taylor & Kuo, 2011), reduced mental wellbeing concerns (Harvey, Montgomery, et al., 2020) and improved immune response (Mills et al., 2020). Finally, vegetation in schoolyards can provide a critical cooling function (Zhang et al., 2017) and can be beneficial in adapting to the increased likelihood of extreme weather under climate change, including heat waves and flood events (Xiao & McPherson, 2002).
There were several practicalities to the implementation of the program that were key to its success. Recognizing the commitment of time from teachers and Wurundjeri Land Council and the capacity to recompense participants was critical to facilitate deep involvement. The school curriculum is already crowded with numerous competing demands, hence expecting that an additional body of material can be incorporated without time and resources would have been impractical. Likewise, the time of Traditional Owners is often in high demand, so adequate provision of resources was an important feature of the program. Embedding the material into an existing cross-school unit meant that it was not imposing further demands on the curriculum and it was an efficient and effective way of delivering the material. This also generated a sense of the topic being "core" to the curriculum, rather than an optional "add-on." While critical to the success of the program, the budget was modest, and it is entirely feasible to imagine similar implementation in many other schools.
Upon reflection of the program, we believe there is potential for future research looking at how programs that imbed Indigenous knowledges change student and teachers perspective over extended periods of time. The immediate results of the program showed changed to teacher and student attitudes. Research on if this attitude is sustained and what actions are undertaken post this style of program could provide an interesting insight into how we can encourage prolonged interest and respect in our First Nations peoples cultures and knowledge systems through our education system.
We have demonstrated the benefits of a cost-effective program for building appreciation and respect for Indigenous knowledge and culture and care for threatened species in schools. The potential co-benefits are impressive, including the creation of threatened species habitat, the potential for improvements in the health and wellbeing of students through engagement with biodiversity and the potential for ecosystem services such as cooling of the school grounds. It is our hope that the program is picked up and implemented in other schools and ideally becomes a core component of the Australian curriculum going forward.