Opportunities for U.S. marine finfish aquaculture

Expanding aquaculture production in the United States affords opportunities to complement fisheries in meeting domestic demand for seafood. This access to safe, affordable, and healthy food choices is provided with minimal impacts on the environment and in concert with the many uses required of our water resources. The United States has a strong history of well-managed fisheries; however, with harvests near their maximum sustainable capacity, meeting current and future demands for seafood may best be accomplished through development of aquaculture. In fact, this is already happening, but mostly outside of the United States. Over 85% of the seafood Americans eat is imported, half is produced through foreign aquaculture; therefore, expanding aquaculture in the United States is a logical approach for reducing our $16.8 billion seafood trade defi-cit along with other benefits of local production. This series of articles on the development of marine finfish species for commercial aquaculture production is a part of the effort to spur domestic growth in marine finfish aquaculture. The articles in this volume provide up-to-date scientific and technical knowledge needed to sustainably produce safe and nutritious fish that will lead to the creation of new economic opportunities through aquaculture in rural, urban, coastal, and inland communities.

Why should the U.S. increase domestic marine finfish production?. But why marine finfish? We think there are several key reasons. Briefly: • Americans eat more finfish than any other seafood product.
• Finfish provide a unique combination of nutritional benefits.
• Finfish aquaculture is a key part of a climate resilient food production system.
• Growth of marine finfish connects the coast to the heartland.

| AMERICANS EAT MORE FINFISH THAN ANY OTHER SEAFOOD PRODUCT
Shrimp is great, but Americans also like to eat fish. Based on data from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) annual report on seafood consumption 1 and analyzed by the National Fisheries Institute 2 for 2018, seven of the top 10 species consumed in the United States, accounting for 64% by weight, are finfish ( Table 1). The top 10 seafood items consumed capture the majority of the seafood in the U.S. diet. In 2018, these 10 seafood categories made up 86% (6.3 of the 7.3 kg, or 13.8 of the 16.1 lbs, con-  healthy adults up to 1,000 mg/day (365 g year À1 person À1 ) for those with heart conditions. The top 10 seafood items contributed only about 78 mg day À1 person À1 (28.47 g year À1 person À1 ) in 2018. Increasing finfish aquaculture generally, and using marine and freshwater finfish aquaculture as a natural way to produce a functional food high in omega-3 fatty acids, is likely our best hope to get to the EPA+DHA levels needed for the nation's health. In fulfilling this recommendation in the context of a rapidly growing global population, 5 it is imperative that the United States expands domestic aquaculture production to do our part to establish global nutritional security.

| FINFISH AQUACULTURE IS A KEY PART OF A CLIMATE RESILIENT FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEM
A recent high-level panel 6 was commissioned to look at the role of the ocean in adding resiliency to food security under conditions of climate change. The overall conclusions were that the oceans were more than just a victim of climate change, rather in many ways they could provide solutions. One white paper produced by this group that focused on food security provided this headline conclusion: "Under optimistic projections regarding alternative mariculture feed innovations and uptake, the ocean could supply over six times more food than it does today (364 million metric tons of animal protein). This represents more than twothirds of the edible meat that the FAO estimates will be needed to feed the future global population." The authors also concluded: "Significantly expanding fed mariculture (i.e., mariculture of species that rely on feed inputs for nutrition, such as finfish and crustaceans) in a sustainable way is possible but will require major innovations in feed so production is not limited by capture fisheries." Looking at this report, it is clear that they make a good case that finfish aquaculture will play a major role in the sustainable production of food from animals of all types. In one scenario examined in this report ( fig. 4, scenario 4), the potential for finfish aquaculture is projected to be much greater than the headline finding reported above, with potential to far exceed FAO's projected world needs for all sources of animal protein well into the future, if feed is no longer constrained by fishmeal and fish oil. We argue that this is already the case. A decade ago, NOAA and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) asked the question if fishmeal and oil was going to constrain future growth in fed aquaculture 7 and we issued our findings in a report called the Future of Aquafeeds. 8 The relevant main finding from that report is: "Fish meal and fish oil are not nutritionally required for farmed fish to grow." The bottom line from that joint initiative is that we are not constrained by inputs from the wild capture fishery.
Fishmeal and oil from wild sources are increasingly being decoupled from finfish aquaculture not only technically but also economically. A decade after the Future of Aquafeeds, we are now seeing this happening with the private sector exploding in both the adaption of traditional non-marine-based feedstuffs and the development of new feedstuffs targeted specifically for aquaculture.
The NOAA/USDA Alternative Feeds Initiative also found: "Farming of fish is a very efficient way to produce animal protein and other human nutritional needs. Farmed fish use their feed very efficiently. For example, farmed Atlantic salmon can convert approximately one kilogram of feed (dry) into one kilogram of flesh (wet). In contrast, the feed conversion of poultry is 3-5:1, and pork is 8:1. Fish need fewer calories because they are cold-blooded and they do not need to support their weight."

| GROWTH OF MARINE FINFISH CONNECTS THE COAST TO THE HEARTLAND
That same NOAA/USDA Alternative Feeds Initiative report found: "Plants produce the vast majority of protein and edible oils in the world, accounting for 94 percent of total protein production and 86 percent of total edible oil production. Plants also make up a substantial proportion of diets for carnivorous fish (e.g., 50-60 percent of a typical salmon diet), and that proportion is increasing. It is likely that plants will deliver the bulk of amino acids and fats to diets for farmed fish in the future due to abundance, the potential for increased production, and low cost. Research to increase the use of sustainable plant products in feeds for aquatic organisms will help to increase the importance of agriculture to aquaculture and vice versa. This area of research would be as important to farmers as to aquaculturists and may represent a significant opportunity for American farmers." This projection from a decade ago turned out to be true and the growth of marine aquaculture is increasingly tied to agriculture. No other segments of aquaculture have as strong ties to terrestrial agriculture as feeds for the aquaculture production of seafood. However, this exchange goes both ways. The economic importance of feed from the heartland for the fish farming industry is obvious; however, the products of fish farmers can also benefit our nation's terrestrial farmers. This is because inland communities consume less seafood and benefit less from the health-giving aspects gained by seafood consumption than coastal communities. Increasing the tie between inland and coast through the finfish aquaculture industry benefits both communities.

| BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER
In 2017, the status of many marine finfish species was described in the U.S. Country Report 9 for the FAO's State of the meeting nutrient requirements at all stages of the lifecycle, managing fish health and well-being, and establishing breeding programs to provide domesticated stocks that thrive in net pen or recirculating aquaculture production systems.
We need to support efforts to prepare many of these species among others for aquaculture production and to continue to support the development of marine finfish aquaculture through federal research, education, and extension programs.
Our efforts to support the expansion of marine finfish aquaculture focus on developing culture methods; however, it is important to note that the growth of this industry is primarily limited by regulatory and policy constraints and negative consumer perceptions of aquaculture. Specifically, Knapp and Rubino 14 identified the following top challenges for marine finfish aquaculture.
• Marine aquaculture is relatively small, diverse, and (with a few exceptions) unproven.
• Marine waters are public resources.
• Some Americans fear potential negative effects of marine aquaculture without offsetting benefits.
• Aquaculture faces significant social opposition.
• The governance system for leasing and regulation hinders the development of U.S. marine aquaculture.
Furthermore, Lester et al. 2018 15 also identified the following limitations to expanding U.S. marine finfish aquaculture.
• Barriers to entry include regulatory and permitting systems that are highly fragmented across multiple state and federal agencies; • Our framework for offshore permitting is not clear, is lengthy in time and expensive with uncertain outcomes; • There is an unmet need for spatial planning that identifies off-shore areas for aquaculture development that are productive and profitable while minimizing environmental, social and economic impacts; and • Consumers and political leaders have not yet viewed aquaculture as a responsible and sustainable solution for meeting global demands for animal protein.
Although this series of articles focuses on culture methods, there are ongoing efforts within the federal government to address all the limitations to expanding domestic production of marine finfish. Federal aquaculture activities are coordinated under the National Science and Technology Policy Council's Subcommittee on Aquaculture (SCA), who supports science-based expansion of domestic aquaculture and is considering updating the 1983 National Aquaculture Development Plan. 16 If the plan is updated, it will include strategic plans for research, regulatory efficiency, and economic development. Aquaculture science is critically important for informing the development of policies that: • sustain aquaculture production while maintaining healthy and productive freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems; • protect special aquatic areas; • rebuild overfished wild stocks; • restore populations of endangered species; • restore and conserve freshwater, coastal, and marine habitat; • balance competing uses of aquatic environments; • create employment and business opportunities in inland and coastal communities; and • enable the production of safe and sustainable seafood.
These efforts to strategically expand marine finfish aquaculture have long been supported by teams of government agencies, universities, and entrepreneurs aiming to advance aquaculture, and the series of meetings that resulted in this volume reflect that continued commitment. USDA programs that can support the development and expansion of a responsible marine finfish aquaculture industry are: • Intramural research supported through Component 5 of the Agricultural Research Services National Action Plan for Aquaculture: Developing Marine Finfish Seedstocks. 19 • Extramural research, education, and extension supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture 20 including capacity building formula funds, competitive programs with broad eligibility such as the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative and Small Business Innovation Research, and aquaculture specific programs such as the Aquaculture Research specialty program and the Regional Aquaculture Centers.
• The National Agricultural Statistics Service produces the Census of Aquaculture 21 every 5 years, which expands on the data collected about aquaculture collected from the Census of Agriculture 22 and provides a comprehensive picture of the aquaculture sector at the state and national levels.
Supporting the responsible development and expansion of responsible marine finfish aquaculture is also a stated priority for the Department of Commerce supported by the following programs: • The NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) intramural regional Fisheries Science Centers focus on enduring industry and regulatory science needs. NMFS also provides extramural funding 23 to support industry development through the Saltonstall-Kennedy Grant Program, Small Business Innovative Research, and other grant programs.
• NOAA Sea Grant provides grants and extension services that support the development of sustainable marine and Great Lakes aquaculture to help coastal communities maintain a safe and sustainable local seafood supply.
• NOAA National Ocean Service National Centers for Coastal Ocean Service programs specialize in understanding the environmental interactions of aquaculture with marine and human ecosystems. Interdisciplinary scientists focus on coastal planning to address conflicts among ocean uses, to inform and support public outreach and education efforts, and to increase awareness of the environmental, economic, and social opportunities aquaculture that can provide coastal communities.
Although the federal sector supports a fairly comprehensive aquaculture research portfolio, several critical gaps remain. The 2021 National Strategic Plan for Aquaculture Research (in preparation) will highlight current interagency investments in aquaculture research, especially highlighting investments in genetics, nutrition, health, production systems, food safety, and product quality. However, the plan will also provide an opportunity to identify important areas that are not adequately addressed. This would include: • Economic and marketing research on the competitiveness of U.S. aquaculture products, and their economic and social values in comparison to imported products • Long-term, commercial scale demonstration projects for offshore aquaculture that evaluate commercial feasibility, environmental impacts, and new technologies.
• Long-term, commercial scale demonstration projects for land-based, closed-containment systems that evaluate commercial feasibility, environmental impacts, and new technologies.
• Supporting a robust Extension workforce, who is able to facilitate technology transfer and inform research needs and priorities.
USDA and NOAA aquaculture programs work together and separately to emphasize the importance of establishing partnerships as being critical to the success of expanding domestic aquaculture, whether inter-federal agency, partnerships with academic institutions, non-profit organizations, state, tribal or local governments, or public-private partnerships that demonstrate the possibilities for aquaculture and transfer emerging technologies to the industry. The partnership that will be the most critical for expanding domestic marine aquaculture is the broad relationship between federal agencies and their stakeholders. Stakeholders, including farmers, industries that support farming (feed suppliers, fish health services, manufacturers of aquatic systems and technologies) and the allied organizations that represent them and the federal sector must engage to: (a) support science-based policy making, participate in formal rule making and legislative processes affecting aquaculture research and policy and (b) help direct the federal research portfolio through communication on research needs and priorities, participating in programmatic reviews, and collaborating to establish effective technology transfer. This Journal of World Aquaculture volume is an outcome of such a partnership. It would not have been possible without the contribution of many from the federal government, academia, and the private sector.
As is evident from this journal issue, the U.S. capacity for innovation and technology development will enable the use of science-based approaches to expand responsible use of the nation's natural resources for food production and develop a globally competitive, science-and technology-driven sector that meets increasing demands for aquatic products that are affordable and meet high standards for safety, quality, nutrition, and environmental stewardship while providing new opportunities for profitability and economic growth.
Disclamers: The scientific results and conclusions, as well as any views or opinions expressed herein, are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of NOAA or the Department of Commerce.