How to … write an abstract

writing, a necessary academic skill for all researchers, is an art in succinct and compelling scientific storytelling. The concise nature of an abstract emphasises these challenges: How can we apply principles for effective written communication in a concentrated and compact form without losing comprehension? The guidelines below will support abstract writing for submission acceptance, use and citation. 1 – 3 Lingard and Watling ’ s 4 ‘ It ’ s a story , not a study ’ provides a para-digmatic shift in thinking about academic writing. While a study lives in the methods and results of a report, a story unfolds in the introduction, discussion and conclusion. 5 A study may be primarily concerned with the accuracy of the reporting, but a story seeks to be persuasive — understandable, compelling and memorable. 5 To be persuasive, writers should focus on the how (organisation or structure of writing) and why (relevance and impact of writing, i.e., introduction, discussion and conclusion) questions, over the what (i.e., methods). 6 However, foundational to a persuasive story is academic rigour; without quality, a story cannot be compelling.

digmatic shift in thinking about academic writing.While a study lives in the methods and results of a report, a story unfolds in the introduction, discussion and conclusion. 5A study may be primarily concerned with the accuracy of the reporting, but a story seeks to be persuasive-understandable, compelling and memorable. 5To be persuasive, writers should focus on the how (organisation or structure of writing) and why (relevance and impact of writing, i.e., introduction, discussion and conclusion) questions, over the what (i.e., methods). 6However, foundational to a persuasive story is academic rigour; without quality, a story cannot be compelling.
Varpio et al. 3 outline how to develop a persuasive argument through use of 'ethos' (appeal to credibility), 'pathos' (appeal to emotion) and 'logos' (appeal to logic) (Table 1).The 'problem, gap, hook' heuristic is another helpful guide in capturing the essential elements of an successful abstract (Table 1). 4,5

Know your audience
If writing a paper is likened to entering a conversation, 5 then writing an abstract is akin to a 2-minute elevator pitch.Before you begin, you need to know who you are talking to: Who is your audience?. 7 Speaking to a particular audience, and appealing to their interests and emotions, addresses 'pathos'. 3

Align the structures of your abstract and submission
Abstract writing begins at the end of the manuscript writing process, along with finalising the title and key words. 2Abstract structures vary, according to journal or conference requirements.However, overall, your abstract must tell a logical story.An initial generic structure of introduction/purpose, methods, results and discussion and/or conclusion can provide a clear starting point. 3Others suggest using more specific and informative headings such as background, objectives, design, setting, participants, interventions and outcomes, for greater impact and readability. 2,8Practically, you can also copy and paste existing content directly from your manuscript into your abstract to be edited down. 2 Whatever approach you use, aim for structural cohesiveness: alignment between the structures of your abstract and submission (i.e., 'logos'), 2,8 and adhere to the journal or conference guidelines. 2,9,10If you think of your abstract as a map to guide the reader on their journey through your research, then a mismatched abstract could lead to them becoming lost or the final destination not being reached.

Arouse interest in your introduction to promote further reading
The opening sentence of your abstract is critical, for it is the first (and potentially last) thing a reader reads.An abstract is a promotional document, for it seeks to 'sell' your research to a reader and persuade them to engage further. 3A strong opening statement, headlining the significance and timeliness (i.e., 'hook') of your research problem, in consideration of its relevance to key stakeholders, should grab a reader's interest. 1,2,9,11yond sparking interest, stating the topic and purpose of the research early on establishes a cognitive starting point for the reader to follow throughout the rest of the abstract as the narrative is unpacked. 12Put differently, if the 'hook' is a seed of promise planted in the introduction, the reader will reap its full rewards, in terms of study implications, in the discussion/conclusion. 4This also speaks to delivering on readers expectations (i.e., 'pathos'). 3,9,12 word count allows, inclusion of literature reviewed, best available evidence or theories/concepts drawn upon supports the 'ethos' or credibility of your research. 7,10,13In general, references are not included in abstracts, yet referencing a seminal (or recent groundbreaking) paper or naming a key theorist/researcher in the field, can lend rigour (i.e., 'ethos') to your submission. 1,3iefly include methodology and elements of rigour

Detail your results
The results, analysis, discussion and conclusion sections should form the bulk of your abstract. 2,10Do not hide your findings!Compel the reader to continue reading your paper through including the details of your results, whether precise numeric data or complete qualitative T A B L E 1 Tips for each stage and section of abstract writing.• Consider varied assumptions and levels of literacy of different audiences regarding your research phenomenon.• Remember accessibility, diversity and inclusivity (e.g., language usage for non-native English speakers).• Conform abstract to journal or conference guidelines (e.g., structure, journal aims/scope, conference themes, inÀ/exclusion of references).

Abstract introduction
What is your research problem and why does it matter to the reader?What research gap does your study seek to close?
• Use a strong opening statement to grab the reader's attention.
• Clearly state your research problem and relate it to your audience (i.e., relevance, significance, timeliness; 'pathos' and 'hook').• Establish rigour through inclusion of key theorists, best available evidence, seminal or the latest papers (i.e., 'ethos').

Abstract methodology
What is your research design to answer your research question/s?

Abstract results
What are your most significant findings that answer your research question/s?
• Include specific details in order to convert initial interest into committed manuscript readers (for use and citation) or conference activity attendees.

Abstract discussion and conclusion
Why does this research matter?What are the implications of your study and actionable insights for the reader?
• Address implications of the results, aligning to the introduction, for a unified story with a logical ending (i.e., 'logos').• Include future research (i.e., 'logos').

After
What words are you using?Is this story concise but compelling?
• Consider word choice and edit.
• Check for narrative flow, clarity and consistency/logic (i.e., 'logos').• Use linking or transition words to connect each section.
• Do not include unspecified abbreviations or complex terminology, unless you are able to define them.• Read your abstract aloud to evaluate word choice and sentence structures.• Ensure all authors, and independent critical readers if possible, review the abstract before submission.
themes. 2,9,10,14Providing incomplete or insufficient information in an abstract could lead to the rejection of your submission. 1 Include take home messages in your discussion and conclusion The discussion and conclusion are the 'climax' of your story. 15Do not restate your results; rather, connect back to the study significance in the introduction.This final section must state why this research matters, while highlighting the novelty and implications of the work. 2,4,15 explicit in reporting actionable conclusions: Do not make the readers guess at the meaning or impact of your findings. 2For instance, 'take home messages' are often translations of findings into practice for the reader to implement. 3The relevance, currency or transferability, of the work to other settings should also be addressed. 7,10,13wever, writers need to be mindful that scientific rigour needs to be maintained.Conclusions should be realistic and justifiable, without under-or over-interpreting the findings and implications of your work. 1,2,7,9,10,16Finally, what is the inevitable next chapter (future research) of this story should be shared. 5,9,13it ruthlessly The compressed nature of an abstract means that every single word choice should be carefully considered. 3Do not waste words on platitudes or filler sentences; ruthlessly edit unnecessary adjectives and adverbs. 4Use transitional words or phrases to show connections. 3Cook 11 recommends reading your writing out loud in order to identify awkward sentences or inconsistencies.Involve all authors in the writing and reviewing of your abstract, as well as independent critical readers who may offer a fresh set of eyes on the 'final' product. 9,11Lastly, proofread and polish your writing before submission, taking care to correct poor grammar or typographical errors. 9,11

IN CLOSING
Abstracts should tell stories.16 The story must appeal to the reader, grabbing their interest through relevance and relatability (i.e., 'pathos').While the packaging of a story is crucial, no amount of good writing can make up for shoddy science or poor quality research, such as ignoring the literature, poorly design studies, inappropriate methods, insufficient data collection and a lack of relevance, rigour, originality or innovation (i.e., 'ethos'). 1,3,6,10,13Lastly, practice makes perfect.It is only through writing, and re-writing, that we can improve in our craft.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Danica Anne Sims: Conceptualization; writing-original draft; writing-review and editing; investigation; visualization; formal analysis; project administration; resources.
Inclusions of methodological details (i.e., paradigms and research design, such as case study, grounded theory, ethnography, action research, narrative inquiry, phenomenology and mixed methods, including data collection methods and analytic strategies) can demonstrate the rigour (i.e., 'logos') of your research.1,10Include informative elements, such as sampling or participants, context, interventions, ethics and reflexivity, if words allow,[8][9][10] keeping relatability and transferability to the audience in mind.